2:14 teaching of Balaam: Certain troublemakers were permitting what the Jerusalem Council had prohibited: the consumption of idol food and the practice of sexual immorality (Acts 15:29). On the relation between this prohibition and Paul's teaching in 1 Cor 8-10, see essay: Paul, Idol Food, and the Jerusalem Council at 1 Cor 9. • Balaam appears in Num 22-24 as a Mesopotamian magician who counseled Moabite women to seduce the men of Israel into sexual and idolatrous sin (Num 25:1-3; 31:16). The warning that perpetrators of sin will face Christ's word of judgment, symbolized as a sword (Rev 2:16), recalls how Balaam was eventually slain with the sword (Num 31:8). Back to text.

2:15 the Nicolaitans: See note on Rev 2:6. Back to text.

2:17 the hidden manna: Refers to Christ himself, whose glory is concealed in heaven but whose coming in history (Incarnation) and liturgy (Eucharist) was foreshadowed in the gift of the manna given to Israel. See note on Jn 6:32. • Manna was the bread that Yahweh gave to the pilgrims of the Exodus, a sample of which was hidden away in the Ark of the Covenant (Ex 16:31-34; Heb 9:4). a white stone: Used in the ancient world to cast a vote of acquittal or carried as a pass to gain entrance into invitation-only assemblies. The believer is thus shown to be righteous or innocent, as well as invited to the marriage feast of the Lamb (19:7-9). a new name: A new identity in Christ (19:12) that admits believers into the heavenly presence of the Lord and the Lamb (22:3-4; Is 62:2) (CCC 2159). Back to text.

2:18 Thyatira: Forty miles southeast of Pergamum. Thyatira was originally a military outpost that evolved into a commercial city famous for its trade guilds (Acts 16:14). These guilds had patron deities that its members were expected to honor in idolatrous ways. Failure to do so could mean both social disgrace and financial disaster for the conscientious Christian objector. Back to text.

2:20 Jezebel: A false prophetess leading believers astray into religious idolatry and sexual impurity. These sins are direct violations of the pastoral decree issued by the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:29). • The "Jezebel" of Revelation harkens back to Jezebel, the Sidonian wife of Ahab, king of Israel (1 Kings 16:31), and the chief adversary of the prophet Elijah (1 Kings 19:1-2). Jezebel ruthlessly slaughtered the innocent (1 Kings 21:1-16) and was infamous for her harlotries and sorcery (2 Kings 9:22). Back to text.

2:23 as your works deserve: Christ will judge the churches for their deeds, rewarding the righteous with eternal life and repaying the wicked with everlasting death (20:12). The doctrine of judgment according to works is also taught by Paul (Rom 2:6-8) and the OT (Ps 62:12) (CCC 679). Back to text.

2:24 the deep things of Satan: May suggest that the followers of Jezebel dabbled in sorcery and astrology, i.e., occult arts that lead practitioners to spiritual ruin (21:8). Back to text.

2:27 rod of iron: Conquerors will possess in full what they already possess in part: a share in Christ's reign over the world (5:10; 22:5). • The iron rod calls to mind Ps 2:8-9, where David's royal heir is offered dominion over all nations. Solomon's empire, though the largest of any Davidic king in the OT, was only a faint approximation of the worldwide kingdom ruled by Christ (Mt 28:18-19; Rom 1:3-5). A rod or scepter figures in other messianic prophesies, as well (Gen 49:10; Num 24:17). Back to text.

2:28 morning star: A name for the planet Venus, visible just before daybreak. It was a symbol of victory in pagan antiquity that later became a symbol of Christ's Resurrection and victory over death (22:16; 2 Pet 1:19). The promise here is a bodily resurrection and may also allude to the believer's triumph over the dark forces at work in pagan astrological practices. Back to text.

3:1 Sardis: Thirty miles southeast of Thyatira. Sardis was once a wealthy and powerful city struggling to recover its former glory. Though a fortified city, it was twice conquered by surprise nighttime attacks. Christ may allude to this history when he warns readers to stay "awake" lest he come like a "thief" and the Church fare as badly as the unprepared city (3:3). Back to text.

3:3 like a thief: This image can be traced back to Jesus (Mt 24:43; Lk 12:39). Back to text.

3:4 soiled their garments: The white garments worn by angels and saints (4:4; 6:11; 7:9; 19:14) symbolize both purity and victory (Dan 11:35; 12:10) and were used in the ancient Church to clad the newly baptized. Some in Sardis had stained their robes by reverting to sinful ways and renewing their friendship with the world. Back to text.

3:5 the book of life: A heavenly register of the saints. To be erased from this book is to lose the inheritance of eternal life (Ex 32:32; Ps 69:28). See note on Rev 20:12. Back to text.

3:7 Philadelphia: Twenty-eight miles southeast of Sardis. Philadelphia served as a base for spreading Greek culture throughout the highlands of central Asia Minor. It was also home to a synagogue community hostile to Christians. key of David: A symbol of royal Davidic authority. Jesus holds this key as a descendant of David (Rom 1:3) and the messianic heir to his throne (Lk 1:32). • The expression comes from Is 22:22, where the keys of the house of David pass from one prime minister to another. Being the Davidic king, Christ possesses the fullness of royal power, yet the Church is given a share in his authority. See note on Mt 16:19. Back to text.

3:8 an open door: Either missionary opportunities (1 Cor 16:9; Col 4:3) or access to the heavenly liturgy where God is perpetually worshiped (Rev 3:20; 4:1). Back to text.

3:9 synagogue of Satan: Harassment from local Jews was a problem in Philadelphia as well as in Smyrna. See note on Rev 2:9. before your feet: The synagogue will be forced to acknowledge that the Church is the beloved people of the New Covenant (Is 60:14). Back to text.

3:10 the hour of trial: A time of tribulation that will test the faith of believers. Jesus says it will seize the whole oikoumene, a Greek term that often refers to the Mediterranean world ruled by Rome (cf. Lk 2:1; Acts 24:5). The warning may refer to the spiritual confusion, political chaos, and natural catastrophes that swept over the Roman world in the late 60s (Mt 24:4-13; Tacitus, Histories 1, 2). However, if one dates Revelation in the 90s, the best candidate is the persecution of Christianity under Emperor Domitian (A.D. 81 to 96). Believers in ancient Philadelphia are promised the Lord's protection from the widespread suffering. There is no hint that the text envisions a "rapture" of the Church into heaven before the onset of earthly distress. Back to text.

3:12 pillar in the temple: Believers form a living temple indwelt with the Spirit and glory of God (Eph 2:19-22). To be a pillar is to stand in an honored position (Gal 2:9). The stability of a pillar contrasts with the instability of the city, which was leveled by an earthquake in A.D. 17. my God: Jesus is not denying his own divinity but speaks from the standpoint of his humanity, which he shares in common with us (as in Jn 20:17). the name: The righteous will bear the names of the Father and the Son (14:1) and be identified as citizens of the heavenly Jerusalem (21:2-4). This may recall how Philadelphia was renamed (Neo-Caesarea) after the earthquake. Back to text.

3:14 Laodicea: Forty miles southeast of Philadelphia. Laodicea was a prosperous commercial city that rebuilt itself without the aid of government subsidies after an earthquake around A.D. 60. It was known for its banking establishments, its medical academy, and its exported products, such as eye ointment and black wool textiles. According to Jesus, its material prosperity merely disguised its spiritual poverty (3:17). the Amen: A Hebrew acclamation used as a title for Christ. Expressing a sense of reliability and trustworthiness, it indicates that Jesus embodies the covenant faithfulness of God, for through him all the promises of God are carried to fulfillment. See word study: Amen at 2 Cor 1:20. • The title comes from Is 65:16, where the Hebrew text underlying "the God of truth" is literally "the God of Amen" (CCC 1063-65). the beginning: The Greek term is capable of several meanings, ranging from "starting point" to "first cause" to "ruler". Christ is the divine Alpha, or first cause, that brought all creation into being (22:13). Identical language is used of God the Father (21:6). Back to text.

3:16 lukewarm: Unlike nearby Colossae, Laodicea had no cold drinking water, and unlike nearby Hierapolis, it had no hot medicinal springs. On a spiritual level, the Church had become so complacent that the Lord promises to spit them out like a mouthful of tepid water. Back to text.

3:18 buy from me: Ironically, local industries cannot provide what the Laodicean Church lacks most, since even a surplus of money, black wool, and eye salve cannot compare to the spiritual wealth, white garments, and supernatural sight supplied by Jesus. See note on Rev 3:14. Back to text.

3:20 I stand at the door: Jesus is pictured standing outside the door of the Laodicean Church. • An allusion is made to Song 5:2, where the bridegroom knocks lovingly on the door of his bride's chamber. Similar imagery appears in Rev 19:7-9. Back to text.

3:21 sit with me: The conqueror is promised the fullness of a blessing he already enjoys in part, namely, a share in Christ's reign over the world (5:10; 20:4, 6; cf. Eph 2:6). Christ is already reigning with the Father in his risen humanity (11:15; 12:5; 22:1). Back to text.

4:1-5:14 The third phase of the book (1:19) begins as the Spirit lifts John into heaven at the invitation of Christ. He is bombarded with a spectacular display of angels and saints worshiping the Lord and the Lamb. The two chapters divide according to this dual focus of worship: Rev 4 praises the Father as the Maker of all (liturgy of creation), and Rev 5 praises the Son as the Savior of all (liturgy of redemption). • The liturgical setting in heaven alludes to the cultic figures and fixtures of the Jerusalem Temple. Familiar sights and sounds include the throne (ark, 2 Sam 6:2), the seven torches (menorah, Ex 25:3139), the winged creatures (cherubim, Ezek 1:10), the 24 elders (24 priestly divisions, 1 Chron 24:1-19), the glassy sea (molten sea, 1 Kings 7:23-26), the musical praise (psalms, 1 Chron 25:1-8), the golden bowls (dishes for incense, 1 Kings 7:50), and the sacrificial Lamb (Passover, Ex 12:21). This and similar scenes throughout the book (Rev 7:9-15; 8:1-5; 11:19; 15:28) express the ancient belief that the Temple of Jerusalem was a visible replica of the invisible sanctuary of God in heaven (Ex 26:30; Ps 11:4; Wis 9:8) (CCC 1137-39, 2642). Back to text.

4:2 one seated: The glory of Yahweh is refracted through precious gems (4:3; 1 Tim 6:16). His throne is the focus of nearly all the activity of the book. From it come judgments (Rev 16:17; 20:11-12) and declarations of truth (21:3, 5), and around it stands an entourage of men and angels engaged in never-ending worship (4:9-10; 5:11-12; 7:9-15; 14:3; 22:3). Back to text.

4:3 a rainbow: A spectrum of color encircles the divine throne. • The rainbow, which also appears in Ezekiel's vision of the enthroned Lord (Ezek 1:28), is a sign of the Noahic covenant that God established with creation after the flood (Gen 9:8-13). Back to text.

4:4 twenty-four elders: Represent the saints, who are dressed like priests (in white) and kings (with crowns). See note on Rev 1:6. • Their number symbolizes the 24 priestly rotations that David established to minister in the Temple (1 Chron 24:1-31). In Jewish tradition, the heads of the 24 divisions were called "elders". Some see the elders representing the fullness of the royal priestly people of God: the 12 tribes of the sons of Israel (saints of the OT) plus the 12 apostles of Christ (saints of the NT), as in the vision of 21:12-14. Back to text.

4:5-6 Streaks of lightning and booming thunder (4:5) feature in revelations of Yahweh's glory to Israel (Ex 19:16) and Ezekiel (Ezek 1:4, 13). The glassy sea recalls the clear sapphire pavement (Ex 24:10) and crystal flooring (Ezek 1:22) spread beneath the Lord on both occasions. Back to text.

4:5 seven torches: Represent the Holy Spirit (1:4). • The number seven recalls Zech 4:1-6, where the Spirit keeps the seven flames of the lampstand burning, and also Is 11:2, where the Greek OT enumerates seven gifts of the Spirit given to the Messiah (CCC 1831). Back to text.

4:6 four living creatures: Angels that appear as animals. They symbolize the glory of God expressed in creation, e.g., divine authority (lion), strength (ox), intelligence (man), and swiftness (eagle). • Their animal appearance (4:7) resembles the cherubim seen by Ezekiel (Ezek 1:10; 10:1), and their six wings (4:8) recall the seraphim seen by Isaiah (Is 6:2). • Traditional exegesis connects the four living creatures with the four evangelists. Matthew is the man whose Gospel begins with the human genealogy of Jesus; Mark is the roaring lion whose Gospel begins with the voice crying out in the wilderness; Luke is the sacrificial ox whose Gospel begins in the Temple; and John is the soaring eagle whose Gospel begins with the highest mystery of Jesus' divinity (e.g., St. Jerome, Against Jovinianus 1, 26). • The living creatures also refer to the whole Church. Her courage is seen in the lion, her sacrificial service in the ox, her humility in the man, and her sublimity in the flying eagle (St. Bede, Explanation of the Apocalypse 4, 6). Back to text.

4:8 Holy, holy, holy: The Sanctus as chanted in the heavenly liturgy. • The hymn resembles the song of the Seraphim in Is 6:3, where the threefold repetition of "holy" is a Hebrew way of saying that Yahweh is the holiest of all (superlative degree). Back to text.

5:1 scroll: A covenant document whose written decrees are put into effect in 6:1-17 and 8:1-5. • The scroll is sealed like the prophetic visions of Daniel (Dan 8:26; 12:4) and has writing on both sides like the tablets of the Decalogue (Ex 32:15) and the judgment oracles of Ezekiel (Ezek 2:9-10). Christ qualifies as the executor of the Old Covenant (Rev 5:9) with divine authority to administer its blessings and curses. • The sealed book refers to Sacred Scripture, for it was opened by no one except Christ, whose death, Resurrection, and Ascension opened access to all the mysteries it contained. None but the Lord could reveal the hidden meanings of the sacred word (St. Gregory the Great, Dialogues 4, 44). seven seals: Wax seals prevent access to a rolled-up scroll (Is 29:11). Back to text.

5:5 the Lion . . . the Root: Messianic titles for Jesus I (22:16). • The first is from Gen 49:9, where the Messiah comes from Judah, the tribe symbolized by a "lion". The second is from Is 11:10, where the Messiah appears as the "root" of David's father, Jesse. Back to text.

5:6 I saw a Lamb: John expects to see a Lion (5:5) but turns to see a wounded Lamb. This is the first of 28 times that Christ is depicted as a Lamb in Revelation (CCC 608, 1137). See note on Rev 5:9-10. slain: Christ forever appears as a sacrificial victim, having taken the scars of his Crucifixion with him into heaven (Jn 20:27). Standing upright, his posture symbolizes his victorious rising from death to life (Rev 1:18). seven horns  . . . seven eyes: Represent the totality of power (Ps 89:17) and knowledge (Zech 4:10) possessed by Christ. Back to text.

5:8 harp: Traditional accompaniment for liturgical song (Ps 33:2). bowls full of incense: The saints in heaven mediate the praises and petitions of the saints on earth (Rev 8:3). The rising smoke of incense is a visible sign of prayers ascending to God (Ps 141:2). Back to text.

5:9-10 The Lamb receives the same worship given to I the Lord God (4:11), indicating that he, too, is divine (19:10). • The words of the song recall the Exodus, when Yahweh redeemed Israel (Ex 15:13) by the shed blood of paschal lambs (Ex 12:21-27) to be a kingly and priestly nation (Ex 19:6). Here it celebrates the new Exodus accomplished by Christ, the new Passover Lamb, whose blood ransoms all nations from sin and consecrates them to serve him as a royal priesthood (Rev 1:6; 1 Pet 2:9) (CCC 608, 1546). Back to text.

5:9 a new song: New songs are composed and sung every time the Lord acts in a new way to save his people (Ps 33:3; 40:3; 144:9; Is 42:10). This song is new as compared to the old victory song sung by Israel after the first Exodus (Ex 15:1-18) (CCC 2642). Back to text.

5:11 myriads of myriads: Countless angels gather to praise the Lord (Dan 7:10) and the Lamb (Heb 1:6). Back to text.

6:1-8:5 The breaking of the seals brings judgment upon the earth, which is stained with the righteous blood of the martyrs (6:11). These judgments parallel the eschatological woes that Jesus warned would lead up to the fall of Jerusalem: wars (6:2; Lk 21:9), international strife (6:4; Lk 21:10), famine (6:6; Lk 21:11), pestilence (6:8; Lk 21:11), persecution (6:9; Lk 21:12), earthquakes (6:12; Lk 21:11), and cosmic disturbances (6:12-14; Lk 21:25-26). History tells of an explosion of warfare, calamities, and upheaval in the years leading up to A.D. 70 and the final devastation of the city. • Conquest, sword, famine, pestilence, and wild beasts (6:2, 4, 8) are forms of the sevenfold covenant curse stipulated in the Torah (Lev 26:1426). Though devastating, these catastrophes are merely a prelude to the worst judgment of all—the utter devastation of the land of Israel and the dispersion of its survivors (Lev 26:2733). This sevenfold vengeance of Yahweh is also the backdrop for the seven trumpets (Rev 8:6-11:19) and the seven bowls of wrath (Rev 15:1-16:21). Back to text.

6:1-8 The vision of the four horsemen. Each one symbolizes the divine judgment he is authorized to execute, whether it be conquest (white horse), bloodshed (red horse), famine (black horse), or death (pale horse). • The vision draws from Zech 1:8-17 and 6:1-8, where four chariots with colored horses patrol the earth after the Babylonian conquest of Israel in 586 B.C. Here the events that ensue are strangely reversed: Zechariah announced an end to the punishment of Israel, but Revelation envisions a new beginning of divine chastisement. Back to text.

6:6 denarius: A full day's wage (Mt 20:2) buys only a day's ration of wheat for one person and a ration of barley for a small family. Limited food supplies and inflated prices are sure signs of famine. oil and wine: Crops harvested in late summer (olives and grapes) are not to be devastated like the crops harvested in late spring (wheat and barley). A limit is set, lest the famine overrun the entire harvest season. Back to text.

6:8 Death  . . . Hades: Personify the satanic forces that bring death and destruction into the world. Both are under the authority of Christ, who conquered them by his rising (1:18) and doomed them to everlasting destruction (20:1314). sword . . . famine . . . pestilence . . . beasts: The judgments of the fourth horsemen. • The same four curses ravaged Jerusalem in the sixth century B.C. (Ezek 14:21) as punishment for its infidelity to the Lord (Deut 32:23-25). Back to text.

6:9 the altar: The heavenly counterpart to the bronze altar of sacrifice in the Jerusalem Temple (2 Chron 4:1). slain for the word The martyrs bear the likeness of Christ, the slain Lamb (12:11; Mt 23:34-35). Their pleas for justice sound from beneath the altar, recalling how the lifeblood (Lev 17:11) of sacrificial victims was poured out at the base of the Temple altar (Lev 4:7). Martyrdom is thus portrayed as a priestly act of sacrificing one's life to God (Rom 12:1; Phil 2:17; 1 Pet 2:5). Back to text.

6:10 how long: The martyrs long for God to redress their murders. • They pray, not out of hatred for their enemies, but out of love for justice. Being near the Judge, they agree with him and pray for the coming judgment, in which the reign of sin shall be destroyed and their lifeless bodies raised (St. Bede, Explanation of the Apocalypse 6, 10) (CCC 2817). Back to text.

6:11 white robe: Symbolic of victory and spiritual purity (3:5; 7:9, 14). White vestments were also worn by the high priests of Israel. See note on Rev 3:4. should be complete: Jewish tradition spoke of a quota of martyrs determined in advance by God (1 Enoch 47, 1-4). Back to text.

6:12-14 Scenes of apocalyptic disaster may be understood literally, as describing the end of the world and the consummation of history (2 Pet 3:10-13), or symbolically, as representing spiritual and political upheaval within history (Is 13:10-13; 34:4; 50:3; Joel 2:30-32; Hag 2:21-22). Though a literal fulfillment cannot be ruled out for the future, the woes unleashed by the seven seals are parallel to the eschatological woes that Jesus warned would seize the world just before the Roman conquest of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 (see Lk 21:5-28). Back to text.

6:15 kings . . . and free Judgment will fall on men of every rank. hid in the caves: Recalls the sinners in Is 2:19, who hide themselves in caves from the terror of God's majesty. Back to text.

6:16 Fall on us . . . hide us: Cries of distress from those engulfed in the tribulation seizing the world. See note on Rev 3:10. • These cries come from Hos 10:8, where the people of Samaria groan in travail over the violent destruction of their city. On one occasion, Jesus put Hosea's words on the lips of those doomed to witness the overthrow of Jerusalem (Lk 23:28-30). Back to text.

6:17 who can stand: Standing is a sign of vindication on the Day of Judgment (Dan 12:13; Eph 6:13). The Lamb (Rev 5:6), the angels (7:11), and the saints (7:9) all appear in this posture in Revelation. • Passages such as Nahum 1:6 and Mal 3:2 indicate that the question "Who can stand?" is rhetorical, implying that no sinner can hope to stand before the wrath of the divine Judge. Back to text.

7:1-17 Chapter 7 is an interlude that follows the sixth seal and delays the opening of the seventh, just as 10:1-11:14 is an interlude that follows the sixth trumpet and delays the blowing of the seventh. John sees the remnant of Israel (7:1-8) and the saved of all nations (7:9-17). Back to text.

7:1 the four corners: Perhaps the earth is pictured as a four-cornered altar (cf. 9:13) upon which the martyrs shed their blood in sacrifice (6:9-11). Back to text.

7:3 sealed: A seal is a mark of ownership and protection (9:4). Here the seal of God is related to the seals of the scroll, giving protection to the believing remnant of Israel, who will pass through the tribulation. This may refer to a grace of spiritual perseverance rather than a guarantee of physical survival. In the broader context of Revelation, there is a contrast between the seal of God stamped on the foreheads of the righteous (7:2) and the mark of the beast inscribed on the brows of the wicked (13:16). The former bears the divine name of God (14:1; 22:4), while the latter bears the demonic name of the beast (13:17) (CCC 1296). See note on 2 Cor 1:22. • The entire scene parallels Ezek 9:1-7, where a messenger seals the foreheads of the righteous in Israel to protect them from the wrath of God poured out on Jerusalem. The seal was shaped like the Hebrew letter taw, which in ancient script looked like a cross (x or +). Marks of divine protection can be traced as far back as Cain in Gen 4:15. Back to text.

7:4 a hundred and forty-four thousand: The number of the tribes of Israel squared (12 x 12) and then multiplied by a thousand, signifying completeness (144 x 1000). Back to text.

7:5-8 Two irregularities stand out in the enumeration of the twelve tribes. (1) The tribe of Judah heads the list, even though Judah was the fourth son of Jacob. The descent of Christ from Judah probably accounts for this (5:5; Mt 1:2-16). (2) The tribe of Dan is missing. It is possible that Dan was cut from the list because of the tribe's infamous love for idolatry (Judg 18:16-19). Others suggest that John is following an ancient tradition that held that the Antichrist would come from Dan. Whatever the reason for the omission, Israel was technically a family of 13 tribes (the tribe of Joseph splitting into the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, Gen 48:1-20), and so one of the tribes had to be dropped to keep the symbolism of the number 12 intact (Rev 21:12). Back to text.

7:9 a great multitude: The saints in heaven who passed through the great tribulation without compromising their faith (7:14). no man could number: The uncountable throng represents the spiritual offspring of Abraham, i.e., those who imitated his faith (Rom 4:11-17). • The Lord had promised to make Abraham the father of many nations (Gen 17:5) and to give him progeny too numerous to count (Gen 15:5). white robes: The garments of the faithful who endured the purifying trials of tribulation (Dan 11:35; 12:10). See note on Rev 3:4. palm branches: Waved at the annual Feast of Tabernacles (Booths) in the liturgy of ancient Israel (Lev 23:40; 2 Mac 10:67). • The international celebration of Tabernacles has its background in Zech 14:16. Back to text.

7:12 Blessing . . . and might: The seven acclamations signify that God deserves the totality of praise from his creation. Back to text.

7:14 great tribulation: A time of unprecedented distress triggered by the opening of the seals (6:1-17; Dan 12:1). Some link this with the "great tribulation" that Jesus warned would engulf the Roman world in connection with the violent conquest of Jerusalem (Mt 24:21); others link it with the Domitianic persecution of Christians near the end of the first century. See note on Rev 3:10. they have washed: The blood of Christ whitens the robes of the saints (6:11). • The rite of priestly ordination in Israel included the purification of priestly garments with blood (Lev 8:30). The sacrificial blood of Jesus likewise consecrates believers for service in the heavenly temple (5:9-10; 7:15). Back to text.

7:15-17 The unending benefits of heaven. • These blessings correspond to Isaiah's visions of the messianic age: God's sheltering presence (Is 4:5-6), immunity to hunger, thirst, and heat (Is 49:10), and the divine consolation that wipes away every tear (Is 25:8). Back to text.

7:15 his temple: The heavenly sanctuary of God (11:19). See note on Rev 4:1-5:14. Back to text.

8:1 silence in heaven: Recalls the liturgical silence that fell over the Jerusalem Temple when the priests offered incense and the multitudes prayed quietly in the outer courts (Lk 1:810). Jewish tradition also speaks of an angelic silence in the heaven when Israel prays and when the judgments of God are about to fall (Hab 2:20; Zeph 1:7). Here an angel offers the prayers of the saints with incense (Rev 8:3-4) just before curses descend upon the earth (8:7-9:21; 11:15-19). Back to text.

8:2 the seven angels: Seven archangels minister in the presence of God according to Scripture (Tob 12:15) and Jewish tradition, which names them Uriel, Raphael, Raguel, Michael, Saraqael, Gabriel, and Remiel (1 Enoch 20, 1-8; 81, 5). They are known as the angels of the Lord's presence (Testament of Levi 3, 7; cf. Lk 1:19). Back to text.

8:3 prayers of all the saints: Like priests on earth, the angels in heaven are liturgical ministers as well as covenant mediators between God and his people. They are vested like priests according to 15:6, and here they offer as incense the petitions of the faithful. The company of all the saints probably includes those in heaven, such as the martyrs (6:9-11) and the multitudes (7:13-14) who praise God for his mercy and plead for the judgment of the wicked. • The Communion of the Saints is the basis for the intercession of the saints. Just as the faithful pray for one another on earth, so the faithful departed pray for us as they look down from heaven (CCC 954-56). the golden altar: The heavenly counterpart to the altar of incense in the Temple (2 Chron 4:19; Lk 1:11). See note on Rev 4:1-5:14. Back to text.

8:5 threw it on the earth: An act of divine judgment on the earth. • The gesture recalls Ezek 10:2, where a heavenly messenger scatters burning coals over Jerusalem. Back to text.

Word Study

Shelter (Rev 7:15)

Skēnoō (Gk.): a verb meaning "to dwell" or "pitch a tent". It appears once in the Gospel of John and four times in Revelation. Its usage is inspired by memories of the Tabernacle pitched in the wilderness during the Exodus period. For a time, this large tent served as the place where Yahweh dwelt among the people of Israel (Ex 25:8; Lev 26:11). From John's perspective, the Tabernacle was a prophetic sign of the incarnate Christ, whose humanity is a sanctuary filled with the glory of his divinity (Jn 1:14). Revelation uses the verb to describe God spreading a tent of protection over the saints (Rev 7:15) so that he might dwell with them (Rev 21:3) and they in him (Rev 13:6; cf. 21:22). Thus, the same verb that expresses the mystery of God dwelling on earth in the Gospel of John (bodily sanctuary) also expresses the mystery of God's dwelling on high in Revelation (heavenly sanctuary).

8:7-11:19 The seven trumpets blast the earth with sevenfold judgment. The second of three cycles of chastisement in Revelation, the trumpets wreak havoc more severe than the seven seals (6:1-8:5) but less severe than the following seven bowls (16:1-21). See note on Rev 6:1-8:5. • The first four trumpets, which devastate a third of the land, sea, freshwater, and sky, are modeled on the Exodus plagues that ravaged Egypt: recall the fiery hail (8:7, seventh plague, Ex 9:23-25), the sea made blood (8:9, first plague, Ex 7:20-21), the darkened sky (8:12, ninth plague, Ex 10:21-23), and the locusts (9:3, eighth plague, Ex 10:12-15). Back to text.

8:11 Wormwood: The name of a bitter plant that symbolizes the sorrow and distaste of human affliction (Jer 9:15; Lam 3:19). made bitter: I.e., undrinkable. • This plague recalls but reverses the story in Ex 15:22-25, where God made the bitter waters sweet. Back to text.

8:13 Woe, woe, woe: A prophetic warning that judgment is about to rain down upon sinners (Is 5:8-23; Amos 5:18; Nahum 3:1). These woes correspond to the plagues unleashed by the final three trumpets (Rev 9:12; 11:14). Back to text.

9:1-12 The fifth trumpet unlocks the abyss, releasing volcanic smoke and swarms of warrior locusts. These are demonic forces let loose to torture and terrorize the earth. Four restrictions are placed on this first woe: (1) vegetation is to be left unharmed (9:4); (2) only the wicked are to be targeted for torment (9:4); (3) victims are not to be killed (9:5); and (4) the plague is to end in five months (9:5). Limitations such as these suggest that God is administering remedial or corrective punishment that is aimed at bringing about repentance (9:20-21). • The prophet Joel once described an invasion of locusts that overran Judea in OT times. As in John's vision, he compared them to an army of war horses (9:7; Joel 2:4) with lion's teeth (9:8; Joel 1:6) and wings that sounded like chariots (9:9; Joel 2:5). This, too, was a plague from the Lord intended to induce repentance (Joel 2:12-16). Back to text.

9:1 a star fallen: A demon or fallen angel (8:10; 12:4, 9). the bottomless pit: Or "the abyss", which corresponds to the Hebrew Sheoland the Greek Hades. In the cosmology of Israel, this is the gloomy underworld where the spirits of men sink down after death to await the final Judgment (20:13; Ps 9:17; Wis 16:13-14). It is also the dwelling of infernal spirits that crawl up to bring death, destruction, and deception into the world of the living (11:7; 20:1-3; Lk 8:29-31; 2 Pet 2:4). Christ has authority over this realm because he holds the "keys" to the abyss and can order angels and demons to lock and unlock it at his discretion (1:18; 20:1). Back to text.

9:4 the seal of God: A mark of protection on the righteous of Israel. See note on Rev 7:3. Back to text.

9:5 five months: Roughly equivalent to the life cycle of an actual locust. Back to text.

9:11 his name: Abaddon is a Hebrew term that means "destruction", and Apollyon is a Greek term that means "destroyer". • The former is associated with the underworld in Job 26:6, Ps 88:11, and Prov 15:11. Back to text.

9:13-21 The sixth trumpet unbinds four demons who rouse an army of fire-breathing horses into battle. Unlike the locusts (9:5), these beasts with lion heads and serpent tails are given permission to kill masses of human life (9:18). Back to text.

9:13 the golden altar: The heavenly altar of incense, where the prayers of the saints ascend before God (8:3). Like its earthly counterpart, it has four horns protruding from its four corners (Ex 37:25-28). Back to text.

9:14 river Euphrates: The longest river in ancient Mesopotamia. Along its banks lived the Babylonians, one of the traditional archenemies of Israel. Back to text.

9:15 hour . . . day . . . month . . . year: The plan of God unfolds according to a precise timetable determined in advance. a third of mankind: The same fraction is applied to the plagues unleashed by the earlier trumpets (8:7, 9-10, 12). Back to text.

9:20 did not repent: The survivors of the sixth trumpet remain hardened in their wickedness (16:9, 11) despite the merciful purpose of these judgments to discipline sinners and bring them back to God (Lev 26:14-33). worshiping demons and idols: The Bible equates idolatry with service to fallen spirits (Deut 32:16-17; Ps 106:36-37). Taunts against idols as lifeless and motionless images were proverbial (Ps 115:4-7; Dan 5:23; Hab 2:18-19). Back to text.

10:1-11:14 An interlude separates the sixth (9:13-21) and seventh trumpet (11:15-19), just as an interlude separated the sixth and seventh seal (7:1-17). This one sets in motion the second half of the book by renewing the commission to John, charged at the beginning of the book with writing down the prophetic visions (1:11), to prophesy "again" (10:11). Back to text.

10:1-11 An enormous angel descends to earth, its legs straddling the shoreline and its right arm raised to swear an oath. Its appearance radiates the glory of the Father (rainbow, 4:3), the Son (wrapped in clouds, 1:7; face like the sun, 1:16), and the Holy Spirit (pillars of fire, Ex 13:21). Perhaps this is the Lord's angel who conveys to John the revelations of the book (1:1; 22:6). • Elsewhere in Scripture the "angel of the Lord" swears an oath in the name of God (Gen 22:15-18) and commissions both Prophets and Judges (Ex 3:210; Judg 6:11-14; 1 Chron 21:18). The immediate background is Dan 10-12, where Daniel encounters a heavenly figure who stood over the Tigris River. This messenger, too, had a glorious appearance (Dan 10:5-6) and swore an oath that God's plan would be fulfilled in the future (Dan 12:7). John stands at the other end of this prophetic pledge: what was far distant in Daniel's day is fast approaching in his own (10:6). • The angel takes an oath, not because of any defect in himself, as if one could not trust his word, but in order to show that his utterance proceeds from an infallible ordinance of God (St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae II-II, 89, 10). Back to text.

10:1 another mighty angel: Distinct from the first "strong angel" (5:2) who cried out in a "loud voice" (10:3). Back to text.

10:2 little scroll: Seemingly a different scroll from that in 5:1 (the Greek terms are different). Back to text.

10:3 a lion roaring: The angel speaks the words of Christ, the Lion of Judah (5:5; cf. Is 31:4; Hos 11:10; Amos 3:8). seven thunders: The mighty voice of the Lord (Ps 29:3-9). It may be linked with the Spirit, who earlier appears as "seven spirits" (1:4) and "seven torches" (4:5). Back to text.

10:6 swore by him: The posture of the angel (10:5) is related to the oath: his hand touches heaven, and his feet span land and sea when he swears to the Creator of heaven, earth, and sea. Raising the hand is one of many gestures connected with oath swearing in the biblical world (Deut 32:40). Back to text.

10:7 the mystery of God: Unveiled as the kingdom of God that comes with the blast of the seventh trumpet (11:15). • The link between "mystery" and the messianic "kingdom" is forged in Daniel (Dan 2:28, 44-47; 7:13-14). Back to text.

10:9 Take it and eat: A renewal of John's prophetic mission to speak the word of God (10:11). The message he receives is sweet because it promises hope but turns sour because it entails suffering for saints and sinners alike. • The scene is modeled on Ezek 2:8-3:3, where the prophet consumed a scroll inscribed with judgments against Israel. At first, the scroll was sweet (Ezek 3:3), but its words of lamentation and woe made his task a bitter one (Ezek 3:14). Back to text.

10:11 again prophesy: John is to prophesy what is recorded in the visions of chaps. 11-22. Back to text.

11:1 measure the temple: A prophetic action in which John measures the sanctuary with a reed but excludes the outer court. There is broad agreement that his action is symbolic and that a spiritual distinction is implied, e.g., believing Israel (or believers in general) is marked out for protection, while unbelieving Israel (or unbelievers in general) is given over to judgment. The measuring that precedes the seventh trumpet (11:15) thus parallels the sealing that took place before the seventh seal (7:1-8). There is less agreement over what is measured. Some take it to be the Herodian Temple in Jerusalem, which was encompassed by an outer courtyard called the Court of the Gentiles. Others note that John elsewhere speaks of the temple of God in heaven (11:19; 14:17; 15:5), in which case the trampling of the outer court may symbolize the Church being persecuted by the unbelieving world. • Measuring the dimensions of the temple with a reed draws on imagery from Ezek 40-42. Back to text.

11:2 trample over the holy city: Taken literally, this would refer to the Roman conquest of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, as in Lk 21:24. Though mass numbers of Jews perished in the calamity, the Christians of Jerusalem fled safely to the Transjordan town of Pella (Lk 21:20-21; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3, 5). Taken symbolically, this could refer to the persecution of the saints, whose destiny is the holy city above (Rev 21:2, 10). • Jerusalem and its sanctuary were twice before trampled down by the Gentiles, once by the Babylonians (Is 63:18) and then again by the Syrians (1 Mac 3:45). forty-two months: A time of tribulation (13:5), also described as three and a half years (12:14) or 1,260 days (11:3; 12:6). Some interpret these figures literally; others read them figuratively, indicating a limited period of persecution or as representing the entire course of Church history. • The time frame is drawn from Daniel's vision of a tribulation to come upon the People of God in the future (Dan 7:25; 9:27; 12:7). This was foreshadowed by the Syrian desecration of Jerusalem from 167 to 164 B.C. Back to text.

11:3 two witnesses: Represent the Church's witness to Israel and, more specifically, her conviction that the Law and the Prophets bear witness to Christ. So understood, the fate of the two witnesses symbolize the rejection of the gospel by unbelieving Israel (11:10), as well as the Church's conformity to Christ in his dying, rising, and exaltation (11:7, 11-12). Some see the witnesses as two historical individuals, either as two unknown martyrs or as two figures from the OT, such as Moses and Elijah or Enoch and Elijah. • The actions of the witnesses recall those of Moses and Elijah: they "shut the sky" (11:6; 1 Kings 17:1); they turn water "into blood" (11:6; Ex 7:20); they are taken up to "heaven" (11:12; 2 Kings 2:11); and they give "testimony" to Jesus (11:7; Lk 9:28-31). sackcloth: A coarse garment of goat hair worn as a sign of mourning and repentance (Dan 9:3; Joel 1:13). Back to text.

11:4 two olive trees: An image drawn from Zech 4:114. • Zechariah saw two olive trees that symbolized the anointed leaders of Israel who helped to rebuild the nation after the Babylonian exile: the royal governor Zerubbabel and the high priest Joshua. Here they represent the twofold mission of the Church to be a royal and priestly witness to the gospel (1:6; 5:10). Back to text.

11:7 the beast: Later mentioned in 13:1 and 17:8. Back to text.

11:8 the great city: The city of Jerusalem (Jer 22:8), which crucified the Lord Jesus and took the lives of numerous early Christians (Acts 5:28-30; 7:58-60; 12:2; 26:10). Some interpret this verse figuratively as a reference to the unbelieving world and its hostility toward the Church. This is the first of several references to the "great city" in Revelation (17:18; 18:10, 16, 18, 19, 21). Sodom and Egypt: Places infamous in the Bible for their moral depravity and oppressive slavery (Gen 18:20; Ex 1:8-14). • Occasionally the Prophets compared the iniquity of Jerusalem to that of Sodom and Egypt (Is 3:9; Jer 23:14; Ezek 23:27). Back to text.

Word Study

Witnesses (Rev 11:3)

Martys (Gk.): a noun meaning "witness". The term is used in a variety of ways in the NT. (1) In a legal sense, a witness is "one who testifies" before a court or panel of authorities (Acts 6:13; 2 Cor 13:1; 1 Tim 5:19). (2) A witness can be an "eyewitness", referring to one who has seen or heard something and who may be called upon to vouch for it (Acts 22:15; 1 Thess 2:10). Paul invokes God in this way as a witness to his intentions and interior actions (Rom 1:9; 2 Cor 1:23). (3) A witness can be a "messenger". In this sense, the apostles are witnesses who tell the world of the dying and rising of Jesus (Acts 1:8, 22; 10:39). (4) In early Christian times, the word acquired the specialized meaning of "martyr", referring to someone who testifies to Christ to the point of death (Acts 22:20). This is the sense of the term in Revelation, where Jesus is the prototype of the martyrs (Rev 1:5; 3:14) who choose to die for him rather than deny him and his gospel (Rev 2:13; 11:3; 17:6).

11:9 men from the peoples: The Gentiles in general or perhaps Diaspora Jews living among them throughout the Roman world. The world applauds Jerusalem's violent attempt to halt the advance of the gospel. Back to text.

11:11 breath of life: An allusion to Ezek 37:1-14, where the restoration of faithful Israel is portrayed as a resurrection of bodies by the breath of the Spirit. Back to text.

11:12 in a cloud: Recalls how Jesus ascended to heaven in a cloud (Acts 1:9) and anticipates how the saints, too, will ascend into glory after the general resurrection (1 Thess 4:1617). Back to text.

11:13 earthquake: The murderous city experiences the first tremor of divine judgment. tenth of the city: The figure of 7,000 casualties, indicative of sevenfold judgment, suggests Jerusalem is still in view. See note on Rev 6:1-8:5. gave glory: This is the only chastisement in Revelation that leads some to repentance (contrast with 9:20-21 and 16:9, 11). Back to text.

11:14 the third woe: The seventh trumpet (11:15). See note on Rev 8:13. Back to text.

11:15-19 The seventh trumpet, which ends the second I series of judgments delayed since 10:1. With this final blast, the kingdom of Christ appears, judgment begins, and destruction overtakes the wicked. • The biblical backdrop is twofold. (1) The collapse of Jericho, an event that gave Israel a decisive hold on the Promised Land, likewise followed seven trumpet blasts (Josh 6:1-21). (2) The declaration in 11:15 recalls the dream of Nebuchadnezzer (Dan 2:31-36), in which the eternal kingdom of God destroys the godless kingdoms of the world (Dan 2:44-45). See note on Rev 10:7. Back to text.

11:17 who are and who were: A shortened form of the title in 1:4, 8 and 4:8. The omission of the future element "who is to come" here and in 16:5 is deliberate, signaling that God has at last come as King and Judge over the earth (11:15). The manifestation of God's kingdom may be linked with the trampling down of Jerusalem, as in Lk 21:31 (cf. Zech 14:1-9). Back to text.

11:19 ark of his covenant: The throne of God in the heavenly temple. From its base issue divine judgments symbolized by violent thunderstorms and earthquakes (4:5; 16:17-18). • John sees the heavenly counterpart to the ancient ark where Yahweh sat invisibly enthroned in the sanctuaries of Israel (2 Sam 6:2; Is 37:16). Back to text.

12:1-14:20 A narrative interlude between the judgment of the seven trumpets (8:6-11:19) and the judgment of the seven bowls (15:1-16:21). This central section may be seen as developing around seven spiritual figures (woman, 12:1; dragon, 12:3; male child, 12:5; Michael, 12:7; sea beast, 13:1; land beast, 13:11; the Lamb, 14:1). Back to text.

12:1-6 The woman of Revelation 12 is both an individual person and a collective symbol. She is Mary, the Mother of the Messiah and the spiritual mother of his disciples (Jn 19:26-27). But she also represents the faithful of Israel, crying out for the Messiah (Rev 12:2), as well as the Church, attacked by the devil for witnessing to Jesus (12:17) (CCC 501, 507, 1138). • The depiction of the woman is rich in biblical symbolism. (1) Antagonism between the woman and the dragon, the "ancient serpent" (12:9), recalls Gen 3:15, the first prophecy in Scripture to foretell the demise of the devil through the offspring (Messiah) of a woman (a new Eve). (2) Images of the sun, moon, and stars call to mind Gen 37:9-10, where they symbolize the family of Israel, namely, Jacob, his wife, and his twelve sons. (3) The pangs and anguish of childbirth recall Isaiah's description of Daughter Zion, a maternal figure that represents the holy remnant of Israel groaning for redemption (Is 26:17; Mic 4:9-10). (4) Because the woman is a queen who wears a crown and a mother who bears a royal male child, she is also the Queen Mother of the Davidic kingdom reestablished by Jesus, the Davidic male child (1 Kings 2:19-20; Jer 13:18) (CCC 489). See essay: Queen Mother at 1 Kings 2. • The woman is clearly the Church, endowed with the Word of the Father, whose brightness outshines the sun. Like the moon she is adorned with heavenly glory, and her crown of twelve stars points to the twelve apostles who founded the Church (St. Hippolytus, On the Antichrist 61). The vision speaks of the Mother of our Savior, depicting her in heaven, not on earth, as pure in body and soul, as equal to an angel, as one of heaven's citizens, as one who brought about the Incarnation of God. She has nothing in common with this world and its evils but is exalted and worthy of heaven, despite her descent from our mortal nature (Oecumenius, Commentary on the Apocalypse 6, 19). Back to text.

12:1 the moon: Can symbolize both maternal dignity (Gen 37:9-10) and feminine beauty (Song 6:10). twelve stars: Represent both the twelve tribes of Israel (21:12) and the twelve apostles of Jesus (21:14). Back to text.

12:2 pangs of birth: This is probably related to the Passion of Jesus, which pierced the heart of his Mother (Lk 2:35) and seized his disciples with the distress of a woman in labor (Jn 16:20-22). Back to text.

12:3 red dragon: Represents Satan, the murderous arch enemy of God (Jn 8:44). His horns are symbols of his strength (Dan 7:7), and his diadems (crowns) are symbols of his ruling power over the fallen world (Jn 12:31). He is doomed to burn forever in the lake of fire (Rev 20:10). • The draconic serpent was a mythological symbol of evil in the ancient Near East. Called Leviathan (Is 27:1) or Rahab (Job 26:12-13), he was pictured as a sea monster with multiple heads (Ps 74:14). Back to text.

12:4 a third of the stars: A flashback to the fall of the angels at the dawn of creation (2 Pet 2:4). The imagery hints at how Satan led the rebellion, dragging a host of demons down with him (CCC 391-92). In the Bible, stars often represent angels (Rev 1:20; 9:1; Judg 5:20; Job 38:7). Back to text.

12:5 male child: His coming forth symbolizes both the birth and rebirth (Resurrection) of Jesus as the Davidic Messiah. • The rod of iron alludes to Ps 2:9, a coronation psalm that celebrates the enthronement and royal adoption (i.e., divine birth) of the Davidic kings of Israel. It is ultimately fulfilled in Christ, who rose to an immortal life of kingship (Acts 13:33) when he ascended into glory (Heb 1:5-8). caught up to God: Refers to the Ascension, which culminated with the heavenly enthronement of Christ next to the Father (3:21; Mk 16:19). Back to text.

12:6 fled into the wilderness: Many interpret this as the safe escape of Jewish Christians from Jerusalem when they fled to a place called Pella. See note on Rev 11:2. Back to text.

12:7 Michael: The heavenly warrior and archangel (Jude 9) who protects the People of God (Dan 12:1). Here he leads the heavenly army in the attack against Satan and his hoards. Back to text.

12:9 that ancient serpent: Satan, who took the form of a reptile when he instigated the fall of man in Gen 3:1-13. His name in Greek is the Devil, meaning "slanderer", and his name in Hebrew is Satan, meaning "adversary". the deceiver: Satan is the father of every lie and falsehood (Jn 8:44). Back to text.

12:10 Now the salvation: Heaven celebrates the expulsion of the devil and his angels. This is not the fall of the angels at the dawn of time (12:4), but the defeat of evil at the turning point of salvation history, when Christ mounted the Cross and cast out the ruler of this world (Jn 12:31-32; Col 2:15). the kingdom: See note on Rev 11:15-19. accuser of our brethren: The devil is a prosecuting attorney who makes damning accusations against the saints (Job 1:6-11; Zech 3:1). Back to text.

12:11 conquered . . .unto death: The martyrs appear defeated by death but are actually victorious. They, most of all, have shown the greater love (Jn 15:13) that makes them like Christ, even in his death (Phil 3:10). Back to text.

12:13-17 Slammed down to earth, the devil storms off after the woman, but God protects her from his evil intentions. • The imagery recalls how Yahweh was said to have rescued Israel from Egypt on eagle's wings (12:14; Ex 19:4). Other allusions include the salvation of Noah's family from the flood (12:15; Gen 6-8) and the destruction of Korah and his rebel supporters when the earth opened its mouth to swallow them alive (12:16; Num 16:1-34). Back to text.

12:17 the woman . . . her offspring: An allusion to Gen 3:15, which stands as a backdrop for the entire chapter. Here the woman's offspring is not only the Messiah (individual, 12:5), but also his disciples (collective, Rom 16:20). See note on Rev 12:1-6. Back to text.

13:1-18 Chapter 13 introduces two agents of the dragon: one is a beast from the sea (13:1), and another is a beast from the earth (13:11). The sea beast is surely the Roman Empire, while the land beast seems to represent a corrupt religious authority. See note on Rev 13:11. Back to text.

13:1-2 a beast rising out of the sea: Several parallels indicate that the sea beast, as a demonic rival, mimics the Lamb. (1) The Lamb is worshiped by angels and saints (5:14), while the beast is worshiped by the wicked (13:4); (2) the Lamb was slain and rose again (5:6), while the beast was mortally wounded and recovered (13:3); (3) the Lamb sits on the throne of his Father (3:21), while the beast shares a throne with the dragon (13:2); (4) the Lamb redeems believers from every tribe and nation (5:9), while the beast has temporal authority over every tribe and nation (13:7); (5) the Lamb is worthy of power and glory from God (5:12), while the beast receives power and authority from the dragon (13:2); (6) the name of the Lamb is stamped on the foreheads of the saints (14:1), while the number of the beast is branded on brows of sinners (13:16-18). • The imagery comes from Dan 7:1-7, where the pagan empires that oppressed Israel in exilic and postexilic times appear as four beasts rising up out of the sea— a lion, a bear, a leopard, and a creature with ten horns. Their animal features are here combined into an image of imperial Rome, who embodies the power and ferocity of them all. Back to text.

13:3 One of its heads: The seven heads of the beast represent seven Roman kings, according to 17:9-10. mortal wound . . . healed: The wounded head is probably Caesar Nero, who committed suicide in June A.D. 68. He was the last of Julius Caesar's dynastic line, and his death threw Rome into political chaos and civil war. Though many thought the Empire had ended with the demise of Nero, a new claimant gained control of the throne (Galba), and the Empire lived on. Others read this as an allusion to the Nero redivivus legend, an ancient belief the Nero would someday return and reclaim his authority as Roman dictator. See notes on Rev 13:18 and 17:10. Back to text.

13:5 forty-two months: A time of limited but intense tribulation. See note on Rev 11:2. Back to text.

13:6 his dwelling: The heavenly sanctuary inhabited by the saints (7:15). Back to text.

13:7 war on the saints: Believers become martyrs when they refuse to worship the beast and its image (13:15; 20:4). According to some, this alludes to the Neronian persecution of the Church in the mid 60s; for others, the Domitian persecution of the late first century is in view (CCC 2113). • The passage recalls the violence of the fourth beast in Dan 7:21. Back to text.

13:8 the book of life: A heavenly registry of the saints. See note on Rev 20:12. Back to text.

13:10 If any one: An allusion to Jer 15:2 and 43:11, where Jeremiah learns that tragedy was certain to befall the sinners of Judah and Jerusalem, for Yahweh had decreed their captivity and death. In this context, the oracle is an exhortation to endurance, either assuring believers that God will bring judgment on their persecutors or calling them to remain faithful in spite of imprisonment (captivity) and martyrdom (sword). slays with the sword: Another manuscript reading has this in the passive voice: "is to be slain with the sword". Back to text.

13:11 another beast: A land beast as distinct from the sea beast of 13:1. Because its power is used to promote false worship (13:12), most think that it represents a religious entity subordinate to the secular State embodied in the first beast. It is identified differently by different scholars. (1) Those who date Revelation in the 60s tend to identify this beast with the religious leadership of Israel centered in Jerusalem. This is the priestly and juridical body that rejected the kingship of Christ and pledged its allegiance to Caesar (Jn 19:15). Thereafter it was primarily Jewish leaders who aroused opposition against the early Christians and accused them before Roman authorities (Rev 2:9; 3:9; Acts 14:2; 17:5-7; 18:12-13; 24:9; 25:1-7, 24). Also, the land beast is later called a "false prophet" (Rev 16:13; 19:20; 20:10). This may be significant in light of Jesus' warning that false prophets would arise to deceive and perform signs in the days before Jerusalem's doom (compare Rev 13:1314 with Mt 24:11, 24). (2) Those who date the book in the 90s identify the land beast with the custodians of Roman civil religion, specifically, the cult of the emperors. Its basis was the deification of the Roman Caesars, to whom temples were dedicated and whose images were placed throughout the Empire. Loyalty to the divine ruler was expressed by worship, with each citizen making a small offering of wine and incense before the ruler's statue. Refusal to participate was not only frowned upon but was gradually regarded as a punishable crime. History shows that Christians were faced with this option of religious apostasy or Roman punishment from at least the second century A.D. (Pliny the Younger, Epistles 10, 96). Back to text.

13:13 great signs: The land beast is empowered to dazzle the wicked with displays of its power (cf. 2 Thess 2:910). fire  . . . from heaven: A demonic replication of the miracles of Elijah (1 Kings 18:38; 2 Kings 1:10-14). Back to text.

13:14 an image: An idol to be worshiped. • Allusion is made to Dan 3:1-7, where King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon erected a colossal image and decreed that all must bow in worship before the idol under pain of death. The pious Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego became protomartyrs when they refused and were cast into the fiery furnace (Dan 3:8-23). Back to text.

13:17 the mark: A sign of apostasy. By demanding the mark, the beast forces believers to choose between prosperity and poverty, material wealth and martyrdom. It is uncertain what historical circumstances underlie this description. However, standard coinage minted in Tyre and used throughout Syria-Palestine was discontinued in the late 50s, eventually passing out of circulation. In its place, new coins were minted in Antioch with an image of Emperor Nero (See note on Rev 13:18). This may in part explain "buying and selling" in connection with "the beast", especially since the Greek term for "mark" can refer to an image struck on a coin. Back to text.

13:18 six hundred and sixty-six: A number directly linked with the "name" of the beast (13:17). It is probably a cryptogram for Nero Caesar, whose name written in Hebrew adds up to 666. Interestingly, when the Greek word for "beast" is written in Hebrew letters, it too adds up to 666. A few ancient manuscripts list the number as 616, which is the value of Nero's name according to its Latin spelling. In any case, describing Nero as the beast is entirely apt: he was a man of exceeding cruelty and moral depravity and was the first emperor to order a bloody persecution of Christians (Tacitus, Annals 15, 44). See notes on Rev 13:3 and 17:10. • The numeral 666 appears in the Bible only here and in connection with Solomon, who received 666 talents of gold in a single year (1 Kings 10:14; 2 Chron 9:13). This was the beginning of Solomon's end, for his wealth turned him away from the Lord. Solomon typifies the beast to the extent that he allowed material prosperity to corrupt the People of God. Back to text.

14:1 Mount Zion: The heavenly summit crowned with the heavenly Jerusalem (21:2). The earthly Zion, where the historical city of Jerusalem was first made an Israelite settlement (2 Sam 5:7), is a visible model of this celestial height (Gal 4:26; Heb 12:22). • Zion looms large in the OT as the focal point of Israel's brightest hopes for the future. It is the glorified city and mountain where the redeemed will be gathered to the Lord (Is 4:2-6; Joel 3:17; Obad 21; Mic 4:1-7). John's vision of a remnant without a "lie" in their mouths (Rev 14:5) connects directly with this tradition (Zeph 3:11-13). hundred and forty-four thousand: The faithful of Israel sealed on their foreheads. See note on Rev 7:4. his name . . . Father's name: In contrast to the numerical name of the beast branded on the foreheads of the wicked (13:16-17) (CCC 2159). Back to text.

14:2 harps: Traditional accompaniment for liturgical song (Ps 33:2). Back to text.

14:3 a new song: A song of praise that celebrates the salvation of God. See note on Rev 5:9. Back to text.

14:4 they are chaste: Literally, "they are virgins." This probably has two levels of meaning. (1) The assembly is made up of celibate men whose bodies have never been given to women. (2) The assembly is made up of holy men whose souls have not been defiled by the impurities of the harlot city (17:1-6; 18:3) (CCC 1618-19). • "The Lamb walks the way of virginity. Follow him there, you virgins, for on this count you follow him wherever he goes. . . . The masses of the faithful, unable to follow the Lamb to this blessing, will rejoice with you; but they will not be able to sing that new song which is for you alone" (St. Augustine, On Holy Virginity 29). Back to text.

14:6 another angel flying in midheaven: Seven angels have already been described in chaps. 8-10. The first flying in midheaven appears in 8:13 as an eagle. eternal gospel: The invitation to fear and worship the one true God, the Creator of all (14:7). It is a call for the followers of the beast to abandon their idols before judgment falls (14:18). Back to text.

14:8 Babylon: The ancient city and superpower of Mesopotamia built along the Euphrates River (modern Iraq). It was infamous for its moral decadence and is remembered in Scripture as the blasphemous power that destroyed Jerusalem in the sixth century B.C. See essay: Who is Babylon? at Rev 18. • Proclamation that Babylon has fallen draws from Is 21:9 and Jer 51:7-8 and anticipates the vision in Rev 18:124. As in these oracles, the angel speaks of something about to happen (prophecy) as if it were already accomplished (past history). Back to text.

14:10 cup of his anger: The wicked will be forced to drink God's wrath like bitter wine from a cup (Ps 75:8; Is 51:17; Jer 25:15). fire and brimstone: An advance glimpse of the lake of fire and sulfur that burns eternally (20:10). • The damnation of the godless evokes memories of the fiery destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 19:24; Ps 11:6). Back to text.

14:11 they have no rest: In contrast to the righteous, who die in Christ (14:13). Back to text.

14:13 Blessed are the dead: The second of seven beatitudes in Revelation. See note on Rev 1:3. Back to text.

14:14-20 The judgment of the righteous and the wicked is described in terms of a great harvest. The saints are gathered up like sheaves of wheat to be stored in a granary (14:16; Jn 4:35-38), while sinners are severed like grapes from the vine to be thrown into a mill press and crushed (14:19). • Similar scenes of divine judgment appear in the prophets (Is 63:1-6; Jer 51:33; Lam 1:15; Joel 3:13). Back to text.

14:14 son of man: Jesus Christ, described as the royal figure from Dan 7:13. See note on Rev 1:7 and essay: Jesus, the Son of Man at Lk 17. Back to text.

14:19 wine press: A stone trough used to trample or otherwise squeeze the juice from grapes. Back to text.

14:20 the city: Called "Babylon" (14:8). one thousand six hundred stadia: About 185 miles. Some take this to mean that divine judgment will extend over the land of Israel, which is roughly this distance measured north to south. Others read the number as symbolic of completeness (40 x 40 stadia) and envision a worldwide judgment. Either way, the horrific quantity of blood indicates the severity of God's wrath on those who defy him. Back to text.

15:1-16:21 The final cycle of judgments in Revelation are the seven bowls of wrath, which douse the earth with plagues poured down from heaven. Though parallels can be traced between the seven bowls and the seven trumpets (8:6-11:19), the bowl judgments are more devastating and extensive. Back to text.

15:1 another sign: Following the sign of the woman and the dragon in 12:1-3. Back to text.

15:2-4 John sees and hears the martyrs of heaven standing beside the glassy sea and singing praises to God. • They sing an adaptation of the song of Moses from Ex 15:1-18. This was the victory song chanted by the Israelites as they celebrated their deliverance from Egypt on the shores of the Red Sea. Here the saints celebrate a new Exodus from the sin and slavery of the world. For the Exodus theme, see note on Rev 5:9-10. • The entire Exodus from Egypt was a type of the Church's coming forth from the Gentiles. In the end, the Lord will lead her out of this world into his own inheritance, which was not conferred by Moses, the servant of God, but by Jesus, the Son of God (St. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 4, 30, 4). Back to text.

15:2 sea of glass: See note on Rev 4:5-6. conquered: The martyrs attacked by the dragon and the sea beast reign victorious through the blood of the Lamb (12:11; 13:7). Back to text.

15:3 Just and true are your ways: Probably an allusion to the Greek version of Deut 32:4, which is part of another OT canticle called the Song of Moses (Deut 32:1-43). Back to text.

15:5 the temple: Perhaps the inner chamber of the tent of witness, which is the heavenly counterpart to the earthly Tabernacle erected by Moses (Heb 8:1-5). For the liturgical imagery and setting of John's visions, see note on Rev 4:1-5:14. Back to text.

15:6 bright linen: Priestly garments (Lev 16:4) that symbolize purity and righteousness (19:8). golden sashes: Another article of priestly attire. Jesus wears a golden sash as the heavenly high priest in 1:13. Back to text.

15:7 seven golden bowls: Liturgical bowls like the ones used to carry incense in 5:8. The use of holy vessels to pour out the plagues reinforces the idea that God's judgments are holy and just (15:4). Back to text.

15:8 filled with smoke: Entrance into the heavenly throne room is cut off by the glorious cloud of God's presence. • This recalls how the fiery cloud of the Lord filled the Mosaic Tabernacle (Ex 40:34-35) and the Solomonic Temple (1 Kings 8:10-11), making entrance temporarily impossible. Isaiah experienced this firsthand when he saw the Lord enthroned in the Temple (Is 6:1-4). Back to text.

16:1-21 One by one, the seven angels are summoned to dump the seven bowls of wrath upon the world. Unlike the sequence of seven seals and seven trumpets, where an interlude separated the sixth and seventh calamity, the seven bowls are poured in direct succession, without an intermission above or relief for those below. • Several of the seven bowls are modeled on the Exodus plagues that ravaged Egypt. This can be seen in the sores (16:2, sixth plague, Ex 9:8-12), the water sources turned into blood (16:3-4, first plague, Ex 7:1721), the darkness (16:10, ninth plague, Ex 10:21-23), the demonic frogs (16:13, second plague, Ex 8:2-6), and the heavy hail (16:21, seventh plague, Ex 9:18-35). For similar connections with the trumpets, see note on Rev 8:7-11:19. Back to text.

16:5 you who are and were: Part of the threefold title of God in 1:4, here without the future element: "who is to come". For the significance of this, see note on Rev 11:17. Back to text.

16:6 saints and prophets: Martyred in the "great city" destined to be destroyed (18:24). Back to text.

16:7 the altar cry: The pleas of the martyrs are at last answered as God avenges their blood on those who killed them (6:9-11). Back to text.

16:9 men were scorched: The wicked are seared by the sun, while the righteous are protected in the shade of God's presence (7:16). did not repent: Even the crushing weight of divine curses did not bring the wicked to their knees and induce them to mend their ways (16:11). Back to text.

16:10 throne of the beast: The throne of the dragon, which he shares with the beast from the sea (13:2). Historically, the darkness that ensues may be linked with the death of Nero, whose suicide in June A.D. 68 sparked considerable upheaval in the Empire. See note on Rev 13:3. Back to text.

16:12 river Euphrates: Runs through Mesopotamia, to the east of Israel beyond the northern Arabian desert. The Babylonian army had to cross this river when it advanced toward Jerusalem to destroy it in the sixth century B.C. Back to text.

16:13 the false prophet: The land beast of 13:11. Back to text.

16:15 Blessed is he: The third of seven beatitudes in Revelation. See note on Rev 1:3. Back to text.

16:16 Armageddon: Means "mountain of Megiddo" in Hebrew. Megiddo was a fortified settlement in central Israel overlooking a broad plain that was used as a battlefield in biblical times. Revelation envisions another conflict staged near Megiddo, one destined to end with the devastation of the harlot city (chaps. 17-18) along with the defeat of the beast and the false prophet (19:11-21). Ultimately, this catastrophic event serves as a preview of the final battle between good and evil scheduled for the end of time (20:7-10). •The plain of Megiddo evokes memories of victory and defeat. Here Israel routed the Canaanites and secured several decades of peace in the time of the Judges (Judg 5:19-21). Here, too, King Josiah of Judah stubbornly refused to stay out of a foreign skirmish and, as a result, fell on the battlefield and caused great mourning in Israel (2 Chron 35:20-25; Zech 12:11). Back to text.

16:17-21 The seventh bowl brings the final crushing blow upon wicked Babylon. Forced to swallow every last drop of God's wrath (16:19), it is at last shaken apart by an earthquake (16:18) and pounded to the ground with huge hailstones (16:21). Back to text.

17:1-18:24 The visions that follow are directly related to the seventh bowl of wrath in 16:17-21, giving a more in-depth look at this final calamity. Back to text.

17:1-6 John sees a seductive harlot riding atop a scarlet beast. The woman, popularly known as the whore of Babylon, is said to be "the great city" (17:18), a title earlier given to the city where Jesus was crucified (11:8). The beast, having seven heads and ten horns, was earlier described as the beast from the sea (13:1) and appears to be the Roman Empire, with its capital city Rome represented by seven hills (17:9). For background, see notes on Rev 11:8, 13:1-2, and essay: Who Is Babylon? at Rev 18. • Sinful cities are sometimes described as harlots in the Bible. On two occasions, this is said of a pagan metropolis, one being Tyre (Is 23:17) and the other Nineveh (Nahum 3:4). However, the charge is proverbially made against Jerusalem for her spiritual promiscuity with pagan nations (Is 1:21; Jer 2:20; Ezek 16:1-25; 23:1-4, 11, 30). Back to text.

17:1 seated: Symbolizes the unholy alliance between the harlot city and the pagan power with whom she is united in opposition to the Christian message. Multiple images are used to depict these partners in crime but always with the same posture: John sees a harlot seated on the waters (17:1, 15), a woman sitting on a beast (17:3), and a woman seated on seven hills (17:9). Violent action was taken against early Christians by both the harlot city (17:6; 18:24) and the beast (11:7; 13:7). many waters: Symbolic of the Gentile world, according to 17:15. It fittingly stands for the multinational Roman Empire. • Allusion is made to the Greek version of Jer 51:13, which depicts ancient Babylon dwelling upon "many waters". Back to text.

17:2 fornication: The language of sexual immorality is symbolic of spiritual immorality. In the Bible, acts of harlotry point to transgressions of the covenant, such as idolatry and alliances with godless nations (cf. Ex 34:15-16; Ezek 16:26-29; 23:30; Hos 1:2). wine: Sins of violence have filled the harlot's cup with the innocent blood of Christians (17:6). Back to text.

17:3 in the Spirit: The Greek expression, which also appears in 1:10 and 21:10, is ambiguous. As rendered in the RSV, it suggests John's visions are granted by the Holy Spirit and consist of mystical experiences perceived to be in different locations. It could also be translated "in spirit" and refer to John's interior awareness of the revelations he received. scarlet beast: Resembles the Satanic dragon in color (red, 12:3) and appearance (seven heads and ten horns, 12:3). Back to text.

17:4 scarlet . . . gold: Jeremiah once described Judah and Jerusalem as a harlot (Jer 2:20) dressed in scarlet and decked in gold finery (Jer 4:30). Ezekiel likewise pictured Jerusalem as a young woman arrayed in gold and fine linen (Ezek 16:13) who became a harlot (Ezek 16:2, 15). golden cup: The image comes from Jer 51:7, which depicts Babylon as a golden cup filled with the wine of madness. Back to text.

17:5 her forehead: Recalls the mark of the beast (13:1618). Back to text.

17:6 drunk with the blood: I.e., guilty of murderous bloodshed (18:24). • The vision recalls OT laws that declare the consumption of blood an abomination before the Lord (Lev 3:17; 17:10). Back to text.

17:8 was, and is not, and is to ascend: The description of the beast is a parody of the Lord's name in 1:4, 8, and 4:8. Some interpret this as an allusion to the Nero redivivus legend, a popular belief in the first century that Nero, despite reports of his death, had secretly escaped to Parthia and would return with an army to reclaim the Roman Empire. Ultimately, it seems to refer to the "coming" of the Antichrist at the end of time (2Thess 2:8-10), the lawless one whom Paul calls "the son of perdition" (2 Thess 2:3). bottomless pit: The abyss. See note on Rev 9:1. perdition: The beast is destined for the lake of eternal fire (19:20). book of life: A heavenly registry of the saints. See note on Rev 20:12. Back to text.

17:9 seven hills: A representation of Rome, the city that sprawls over seven hills, according to the writers of classical antiquity (e.g., Virgil, Aeneid 6, 783; Cicero, To Atticus 6, 5; Martial, Epigrams 4, 64). Many interpreters, ancient and modern alike, identify the harlot city with Rome on the basis of this tradition, though some see a reference to Jerusalem, noting that it, too, was said to rest on seven hills according to one rabbinic tradition (Pirqe de Rabbi Eleazar 10). Interestingly, there is reason to think that two historical referents are in view here rather than one and that Jerusalem and Rome both form part of the picture. Throughout the chapter, the apocalyptic symbolism is stacked so that the upper images (harlot-city-woman) are distinguished from the lower images (beast-hills-waters). It is thus possible to identify Jerusalem as the harlot city who joins forces with the beastly power of Rome in opposition to Christianity. See notes on Rev 17:1 and 17:16. Back to text.

17:10 seven kings: Numerous interpretations of this have been offered. Read symbolically, it is said to represent all earthly kings, all the Roman emperors, or all the empires of history until the end of time. Read literally, it is often said to stand for seven Roman emperors, the sixth in succession being either Nero (A.D. 54 to 68) or Domitian (A.D. 81 to 96), both of whom were followed by emperors who ruled only a short time. For the most part, ancient Roman and Jewish authors counted Julius Caesar as the first emperor, in which case Nero is the sixth of Rome's first seven dictators (e.g., Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars; Josephus, Antiquities 18, 32; 4 Ezra 12, 14-15). Back to text.

17:12 ten kings: Presumably rulers of a lower rank than the Caesars mentioned in 17:10. Their identity is a mystery, but their destiny is made clear in 19:17-21. one hour: Corresponds to the "hour" of divine judgment (14:7, 15) when the harlot city is destroyed (18:10, 17, 19). Back to text.

17:16 make her . . . naked: A public disgracing of the harlot. • It recalls how the Lord, in OT times, punished the "brazen harlot" Jerusalem (Ezek 16:30) by sending her Gentile lovers to strip her naked and stone her (Ezek 16:35-43; 23:22-31). burn her up with fire: If the harlot is Jerusalem, this symbolizes the Roman conquest of the city in A.D. 70. Interpreters who see the main referent throughout the chapter as Rome (or Jerusalem) exclusively often read this in terms of self-destruction caused by infighting or civil war. Back to text.

17:18 dominion: The language of political sovereignty points to a corruptive spiritual influence that leads other nations into deception (18:23). (1) If the city is Jerusalem, this could refer to the effort of official Judaism to slander the Christian movement and turn the Gentile world against it. (2) If the city is Rome, its political dominance over the Mediterranean world is in view, along with the spread of spiritual corruption through the cult of the emperors. See note on Rev 13:11. Back to text.

18:1-24 A dirge over the death of the harlot city Babylon. • Several images and expressions in this chapter are taken from the judgment oracles of the Prophets, especially Jeremiah's condemnation of ancient Babylon in Jer 50-51. The cry that Babylon is fallen (18:2) recalls Jer 51:8; the charge that nations have drunk her wine (18:3) recalls Jer 51:7; the call to come out of her (18:4) recalls Jer 50:8 and 51:45; the vision of her sins heaped high as heaven (18:5) recalls Jer 51:9; the judgment by fire (18:8) recalls Jer 50:32 and 51:30; the rejoicing of heaven (18:20) recalls Jer 51:48; the image of a stone hurled into the sea (18:21) recalls Jer 51:63-64; and scenes of the slain (18:24) filling the city recalls Jer 51:49. • Babylon and the harlot, whose smoke goes up forever, are none other than the lustful, the adulterous, and the arrogant. If you wish to escape such punishments, have no desire to commit such grave sins. For in the present age, Babylon is always going to destruction and burning up in part (St. Caesarius of Arles, Exposition of the Apocalypse, homily 18). Back to text.

18:3 drunk the wine: The maddening wine mixed in the cup of the harlot (17:4; 18:6). Back to text.

18:4 Come out of her: A call to escape the harlot city before its demise (cf. Gen 19:12-14; Tob 14:4, 8). Some read this as an echo of Jesus' warning to flee Jerusalem when the time of its judgment draws near (Lk 21:20-21). Others, identifying the city as Rome, read this as a call to escape the godless corruption of the capital, much as Paul emphasizes the moral imperative in a similar prophetic passage (2 Cor 6:17, quoting Is 52:11). her plagues: The divine curses of the seven seals (6:1-8:5), the seven trumpets (8:6-11:19), and the seven bowls (15:1-16:21). Back to text.

18:9-19 The clients of the harlot, represented by kings (18:9), merchants (18:11), and sailors (18:17), look on in tears as the wicked city melts down in flames. They are saddened, not for her, but for themselves, being pained at the loss of their illicit pleasures and wealth. • This subsection of the chapter draws mainly from the lamentation over Tyre in Ezek 27. More than a dozen commodities listed in 18:12-13 are taken from Ezek 27:12-22. Back to text.

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