3:11 He who through faith: A citation from Hab 2:4. • Habakkuk is assured that, despite the coming invasion of Judea by the Babylonians, the one who clings to the Lord in faith will be given the grace of protection and will survive the catastrophe. From this text Paul hails faith, not observance of the Law, as the foundation of justification (3:21-22; Rom 1:17). Back to text.
3:12 He who does them: A citation from Lev 18:5. • Leviticus promises life to Israel for observing the Torah and shunning the sins of the Gentiles. Yet, as the recurring transgressions of Israel show (Neh 9:29), the Mosaic Law did not come with the grace needed to keep it (Rom 8:4). Paul may be interpreting this passage through the lens of Ezek 20:11, 13, 21, where the Prophet contrasts the Levitical promise of life given at Sinai with the Deuteronomic promises of curse and death issued on the plains of Moab (Ezek 20:25-26). Back to text.
3:13 Cursed be every one: A citation from Deut 21:23. • This refers to the practice of hanging executed criminals on trees to avert the wrath of God (Num 25:4; 2 Sam 21:9). For Paul, Jesus bore the curses pressing down upon Israel when he mounted the Cross (Gal 3:10). This act enabled the blessings of the Abrahamic covenant, held back for centuries because of the curse, to pour forth upon Israel and the world as a result (3:14; CCC 580). The Dead Sea Scrolls likewise associate crucifixion with the curse of Deut 21:22-23. Back to text.
3:14 the blessing of Abraham: I.e., the Spirit, which is the messianic blessing revealed by the Prophets (Is 44:3; Ezek 36:26-27; Joel 2:28). • The exact expression is from Gen 28:4, where Isaac confers the blessing of Abraham upon his son Jacob. This shows that Isaac alone was the bearer of the Abrahamic blessing, not Ishmael or any other of Abraham's sons (Rom 9:7-9). Paul will capitalize on the significance of this in Gal 3:16 and 4:28. Back to text.
3:15-18 The major premise of Paul's covenant theology in Galatians, namely, that Israel's failure to keep the Mosaic covenant did not relieve God of his prior obligation to fulfill the Abrahamic covenant ratified centuries earlier. Since even human covenants are inviolable once they are ratified by oath, the covenant oath that God swore to Abraham is even more so (Gen 22:16-18; Heb 6:13-18). Not even the ratification of subsequent covenants under Moses could alter or annul God's unconditional pledge to bless the world through Abraham's offspring. In effect, then, the Abrahamic covenant both precedes and supercedes the Mosaic covenant that came after it. Back to text.
3:15 will: The term means "testament" or "will" in secular Greek usage but "covenant" in biblical Greek usage. Despite the RSV translation, the biblical sense of "covenant" is probably intended here, since (1)Paul uses the term this way in his other writings (Rom 9:4; 11:27; 2 Cor 3:6, 14; Eph 2:12), (2) he uses it this way elsewhere in Galatians (3:17; 4:24), and (3) it is a known fact that a will in Greco-Roman antiquity could be altered or even annulled after the death of the testator who drafted it, which is the very point Paul denies in this verse. For a similar translation issue in Hebrews, see essay: Will or Covenant? at Heb 9. Back to text.
3:16 and to his offspring: A reference to Gen 22:18. I • Paul is alluding to the covenant oath that God swore to Abraham to bless all nations through Isaac and his descendants (Sir 44:21; CCC 706). It is significant for Paul that Abraham's other son, Ishmael, was disinherited in the preceding chapter of Genesis and thus excluded from this covenant (Gen 21:1012). Thus, when Paul stresses that the word "offspring" is singular rather than plural, he is (1) alluding to the divine election of Isaac over Ishmael in the Genesis narrative (Gal 4:28-31; Rom 9:7-8) and (2) implying that Isaac is a type of Christ, so that the act that elicits the promised blessing (the sacrifice of Isaac) prefigures the act that fulfills it (the sacrifice of Jesus). See note on Rom 8:32. Back to text.
3:17 four hundred and thirty years: The duration of Israel's stay in Egypt before the Exodus (Ex 12:40-41). Thus, the Abrahamic covenant, last confirmed with Jacob (Gen 28:14), preceded the ratification of the Mosaic covenant by more than four centuries (Ex 19-24). Back to text.
3:19 It was added: The Torah was inserted into history between the Abrahamic covenant and the New Covenant. because of: The Greek can indicate either the goal ("for the sake of") or the cause ("by reason of") for adding the Law. Paul may have both ideas in mind: the goal of the Law was to expose transgressions and heighten Israel's awareness of sin (Rom 3:20; 5:20; 7:7); the cause for adding the Law, at least the bulk of its sacrificial and ceremonial rites, was the rebellion of Israel during the Exodus period, particularly the golden calf transgression (see, e.g., Christian theologians St. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 18-22; St. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 4, 15; St. Aphrahat, Demonstrations 15, 8; St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I-II, 102, 3). ordained by angels: Jewish tradition based on the Greek version of Deut 33:2 held that Moses received the Torah from the hands of the angels (Acts 7:53; Heb 2:2; Josephus, Antiquities 15, 136). Back to text.
3:20 an intermediary: Moses, who delivered the Torah to Israel (Ex 20:18-22; Deut 5:4-5). That the Mosaic covenant involved a mediator implied that more than one party was responsible for fulfilling the terms of the covenant—God and Israel. The Abrahamic covenant, by contrast, was a unilateral arrangement, i.e., God alone swore an oath and assumed the responsibility of blessing the world through Abraham's offspring (Gen 22:16-18). God is one: The monotheistic creed of ancient Israel (Deut 6:4). Back to text.
3:22 consigned all things to sin: Scripture declares all peoples, Jews and Gentiles alike, prisoners of sin. Paul spells this out in Rom 3:9-19 and Rom 11:32. Back to text.
3:23 kept under restraint: The mass of ethical, juridical, and ceremonial laws codified in the Torah was designed to keep Israel in temporary protective custody, lest it imitate the depravity of the Gentiles (CCC 1963-64). Back to text.
3:27 baptized into Christ: Baptism is the sacrament of faith (3:26) and the rite of Christian initiation that replaces circumcision (Col 2:11-12). It cleanses us of sin, joins us with Christ, and makes us righteous children of God (Acts 22:16; Tit 3:5; 1 Pet 3:21; CCC 1226-27). Paul's description of this mystery reflects early liturgical practice where the newly baptized put on a white garment to symbolize their purity in Christ (cf. Rom 13:14; Eph 4:24; CCC 1243, 2348). Back to text.
3:28 you are all one: All peoples, irrespective of ethnic, gender, and social distinctions, are equal candidates for salvation and sonship in Christ (Col 3:11; CCC 791). Back to text.
Word Study
Custodian (Gal 3:24-25)
Paidagōgos (Gk.): a "tutor" or "disciplinarian" or "guide". The word is used twice in the NT, here and at 1 Cor 4:15. It refers to a household slave in Hellenistic society who was charged by a father to oversee the moral formation of his son. This tutelage normally lasted from the time the child was a minor until he reached maturity. The tutor would accompany the youth to and from school, supervise his daily activities, protect him from dangers, and administer discipline whenever necessary. Paul used this familiar custom to explain how the Mosaic Law served a similar function in Israel. It was an instructor and guide for the nation, yet one that was temporary and destined to pass away. The coming of Christ meant that Israel could now be freed from the supervision and restraints of the Mosaic Law to embrace the full inheritance awaiting it in the New Covenant (Gal 4:4-7; CCC 708).
4:1-7 Paul reads the history of Israel as the story of a minor who has grown to maturity and is ready to receive his inheritance. During the Exodus, Israel was a rebellious son (Ex 4:22) whom Yahweh placed under the guardianship of the Mosaic Law (Gal 3:24) and the servile discipline of covenant curses (3:13). The coming of Christ marks the appointed time when the curses and ceremonies of the Mosaic Law are finally set aside and Israel can receive the full inheritance of sonship through the Spirit (Rom 8:14-15; CCC 1972). Back to text.
4:3 elemental spirits: The Greek word is simply "elements", which can denote (1) the first principles of education (Heb 5:12), (2) the physical elements of the world (2 Pet 3:10), (3) the heavenly bodies and luminaries, which were deified by the pagans (cf. Deut 4:19), or (4) the spirits that control the cosmic elements and were likewise worshiped by the pagans (cf. Wis 13:2). Each of these has connections with the religious culture of the Hellenistic world. In this context, however, life under the elements is connected with life under the Law (Gal 3:23-25). The point is not that Judaism is no different from paganism, but that both constitute a state of bondage under cosmic forces from which Christ has freed us (4:4-5, 8-9; Col 2:8, 20). Perhaps the Torah is classified with the elements because it teaches rudimentary principles of religion; its legal observances make use of physical substances; its cultic calendar follows the movements of the sun and moon; and the Law is mediated by angelic spirits (Gal 3:19), who, according to Jewish tradition, also stand in charge of the physical elements and seasonal cycles of the world (Jubilees 2, 2). Back to text.
4:4 the time had fully come: History reached a climax with the birth and death of the Messiah (Mk 1:15; Eph 1:10). This was the predetermined date "set" by God the Father to confer the blessing of divine sonship upon both Israel and the Gentiles (Gal 4:2; CCC 422, 484). born of woman: Emphasizes that Jesus shared in the human condition (Job 14:1; Mt 11:11). Giving birth and flesh to the Son of God makes Mary the Mother of God (CCC 495, 723). See note on Lk 1:43. born under the law: Emphasizes Jesus' link with Judaism and his messianic mission to rescue Israel from the slavery of the Law and its covenant curses (3:13; CCC 580). Back to text.
4:6 sent the Spirit: As the Father sent the Son to redeem all nations from sin (4:4), he likewise sent the Spirit to renew them for a life of sanctity. The joint mission of the Son and Spirit is to bring blessing to the whole human family and unify them in the divine family of God (CCC 689). into our hearts: The Spirit fills us with God's presence and love (Rom 5:5; 2 Cor 1:22). His divine assistance enables us to live righteously as sons and daughters of the Father (Rom 8:4; 1 Jn 3:7; CCC 1265-66, 1695). Abba!: Aramaic for "Father!" It bespeaks a new level of intimacy with the Father that Jesus opened (Mk 14:36) for the children of God (Rom 8:15) (CCC 683, 2766). Back to text.
4:8-11 Paul's personal appeal to the Galatians. Having refuted the logic of the Judaizers in 3:1-4:7, he now urges readers to repudiate their propaganda. The pastoral tone of this section reveals the depth of Paul's affection for the Galatians and indicates how earnestly he wants to restore them to spiritual health. Back to text.
4:8 you did not know God: The Galatians were once pagans, ignorant of the God of Israel (Ps 79:6; 1 Thess 4:5). In accepting the gospel, they turned away from lifeless idols to be known and loved by the living God (Gal 4:9; 1 Thess 1:9). Back to text.
4:9 elemental spirits: For the meaning of this, see note on Gal 4:3. Back to text.
4:10 days . . . months . . . seasons . . . years: Refers to the liturgical calendar of Israel, which was regulated by the cycles of the sun and moon (Gen 1:14). Apparently the Judaizers persuaded some of the Galatians to begin celebrating the weekly (Sabbath, Ex 20:8-11), monthly (New Moon, Num 28:11-15), seasonal (Passover, Pentecost, etc., Deut 16:1-17), and yearly (New Years, see note on Lev 23:24) festivals of the Old Covenant (Col 2:16). Back to text.
4:12 become as I am: Imitating Paul in this context means putting aside the ritual ordinances of the Mosaic Law to "live like a Gentile and not like a Jew" (2:14). Back to text.
4:13 a bodily ailment: The infirmity is not specified, but Paul's comments in 4:15 and 6:11 suggest it may have been a visual handicap. Back to text.
Word Study
Adoption (Gal 4:5)
Huiothesia (Gk.): means "adoption as sons" and can refer to the process of entering a new family or to its lasting result. Paul uses the term five times in the NT. In Rom 9:4, he lists it among the privileges that Israel enjoyed by virtue of its covenant bond with Yahweh (Ex 4:22; Hos 1:11). Every other use of the word is connected with Christians. For Paul, the divine adoption of the believer takes place in two stages: first, our souls are raised to new life and filled with the grace of divine sonship (Rom 8:15; Eph 1:5) and, finally, our bodies will be raised to new life and filled with the glory of divine sonship (Rom 8:23). Divine adoption results from an infusion of the divine life of the Spirit (Gal 4:5-6). Historically, the gift of sonship once possessed in part by Israel is now granted in full to all nations united with Christ through faith and Baptism (Gal 3:2627). While Christ alone is the natural Son of God, we are made to share in his filial life as adopted "sons in the Son".
4:19 in travail: Paul describes himself as a mother who begot Christ in the lives of the Galatians (cf. 2:20). His labor pains continue as he groans to see his sons and daughters turning back to bondage (CCC 526, 562). Back to text.
4:22 two sons: Abraham's oldest son, Ishmael, was born of his concubine, Hagar (Gen 16:15), while his younger son, Isaac, was born of his wife, Sarah (Gen 21:1-3). Hagar was Sarah's personal slave (Gen 16:1). Back to text.
4:23 through promise: The birth of Isaac was the result of God's promise and miraculous intervention, since Sarah was barren and elderly at the time (Gen 15:2-4; 17:15-19). Ishmael was conceived by purely natural means, that is, according to the flesh (Gen 16:3-4). Back to text.
4:24-31 The mothers of Isaac and Ishmael represent two distinct covenants and thus two ages of salvation history. The slave woman, Hagar, is linked with Mount Sinai, where the Torah was given to Israel; the essence of this covenant was practiced and promoted in Jerusalem. The free woman, Sarah, is symbolic of the heavenly Jerusalem above, where the saints worship God in the freedom of the New Covenant (Heb 12:2223) without the burdensome yoke of the Mosaic Law (Gal 5:1). A contrast is thus set up between the Judaizers and the Galatians: the former are sons of the earthly Jerusalem, who are born into religious slavery through the Law (like Ishmael, from Hagar), while the latter are sons of the heavenly Jerusalem (CCC 757), who are born into freedom and blessedness through the gospel (like Isaac, from Sarah). See note on Gal 3:15-18. Back to text.
4:24 this is an allegory: An example of spiritual exegesis, which expounds the prophetic meaning of OT persons, places, events, and institutions in light of the New Covenant. Whereas literal exegesis interprets the words of the Bible, spiritual exegesis interprets the realities and events of the Bible described by its words (CCC 115-17). • The author of Holy Scripture is God, who can signify his meaning, not only by words, as even man can do, but also by things. The first signification whereby words signify things belongs to the historical or literal sense. The signification whereby things signified by words also have their own signification is the spiritual sense, which is based on the literal and presupposes it (St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I, 1, 10). Back to text.
4:25 in Arabia: Paul naturally links Hagar with Arabia, since the descendants of her son, Ishmael (Arabs), dwelt in this desert region. Back to text.
4:27 Rejoice, O barren one: A citation from the Greek version of Is 54:1. • Isaiah compares Jerusalem, destroyed and desolate after the Exile (586 B.C.), to a barren woman made fruitful by God and to a tent that will spread out to make the nations her children (Is 54:2-3). Historically, the text is an allusion to the matriarch Sarah, who was barren but miraculously gave birth to Isaac. Prophetically, it points to the heavenly Jerusalem, which is the mother city made fruitful by God to bear children from all nations through the gospel. Back to text.
4:28 children of promise: Paul concludes that those in Christ (3:27) share the Abrahamic blessings that were promised to come through Isaac to the world (3:14). See note on Gal 3:16. Back to text.
4:29 persecuted: Paul follows a Jewish tradition that interprets the "playing" of Abraham's sons in Gen 21:9 as a power struggle between the boys, with the older Ishmael taunting the younger Isaac. The current harassment by the Judaizers links them with Hagar and the Ishmaelites, whose descendants were among the traditional enemies of the covenant people (1 Chron 5:10; Ps 83:5-6). Back to text.
4:30 Cast out the slave: A citation from Gen 21:10. • This is the moment when Ishmael is expelled from Abraham's family and disqualified from being a rightful heir. It refutes the logic of the Judaizers that circumcision is the sign that entitles one to a share in the blessings of Abraham. In effect, Paul is reminding them that Ishmael and Isaac were both circumcised, yet Ishmael was disinherited and Isaac alone received his father's blessing. See note on Jn 8:35. Back to text.
5:1 yoke of slavery: An image of the Mosaic Law, with its burdensome ceremonial requirements (Acts 15:10). It stands in stark contrast to the freedom of faith in Jesus Christ (Mt 11:29-30), who alone liberates us from sin and death (Acts 13:38-39; CCC 1972). For Paul, the two are mutually exclusive, since to accept the yoke of the Law as a requirement for salvation is to reject Christ as the sole foundation of our redemption and spiritual life (Gal 2:21). • The Council of Florence (1442) declared that Christians cannot observe the Mosaic ceremonies of the Old Covenant as necessary for salvation without sinning gravely (Session 11). Although it was permitted for Jewish converts to maintain their ancestral traditions in the earliest days of the Church, this grace period ended with the wide dissemination of the gospel. Thereafter neither Jews nor Gentiles could lawfully uphold circumcision, animal sacrifices, or dietary distinctions as legitimate practices in the New Covenant. Back to text.
5:3 keep the whole law: Circumcision is the doorway into the Old Covenant, and so those who embrace it are obligated to observe the Mosaic Law in its entirety. Ironically, the Judaizers are hypocrites in this regard (6:13). Back to text.
5:6 faith working through love: Faith alone is insufficient to justify the sinner. If it stands by itself and fails to join with love in acts of generosity and service, it is empty and vain (1 Cor 13:2; Jas 2:14-26). The parallel passage in 1 Cor 7:19, which likewise asserts the irrelevance of circumcision, suggests that Paul associates the labor of faith and love with keeping the moral commandments of God. Love has precisely this focus in Pauline theology (Gal 5:13-14; Rom 13:8-10) (CCC 162, 1814). Back to text.
5:9 A little leaven: Symbolic of a hidden but evil influence (Mt 16:12; 1 Cor 5:6-8). If even a few of Paul's readers submit to circumcision at the insistence of the Judaizers, it could have a disastrous effect upon all the Galatian Christians. Back to text.
5:11 stumbling block of the cross: In the eyes of the Judaizers, this would consist in the exemption of converts from the ritual demands of the Mosaic Law. Back to text.
5:12 mutilate themselves: Paul wishes sarcastically that the Judaizers, in their zeal to promote circumcision, would go even farther by castrating themselves (Phil 3:2). Back to text.
5:13 called to freedom: Christian liberty is not a license to indulge in sin and selfishness. We are free, rather, to mature in grace and become the saints we are called to be (Jn 8:31-32). Once Christ has freed us from sin (Rom 6:20-22), the ceremonies of the Old Law (Acts 15:1-11), the curses of the Law (Gal 3:13), and the tyranny of our fallen nature (Rom 8:2), it is grossly irresponsible to despise his grace by reverting to the old ways. This would lead again to spiritual slavery, putting offenders in a worse position than ever before (2 Pet 2:19-22) (CCC 1740-42). Back to text.
5:14 the whole law: The chief aim of the Torah is to promote the love of God, neighbor, and self (Mt 22:34-40; Rom 13:8-10). Jesus lived this intention of the Law to perfection, so that the law of love has become the "law of Christ" (Gal 6:2; 1 Cor 9:21). Our ability to fulfill this law is made possible by the grace of the Spirit (Rom 5:5; 8:4). You shall love your neighbor: A citation from Lev 19:18. Observance of this law was sorely needed in Galatia, where the Judaizing crisis spawned bitterness and strife between fellow Christians (Gal 5:15). • It may be asked why the apostle mentions love of neighbor but not love of God. Yet who can love his neighbor if he does not love God, since it is only by the gift of God that one can love his neighbor? Since neither precept can be observed unless the other is observed, it suffices to mention one of them (St. Augustine, Exposition of Galatians 45). Back to text.
5:16-24 Paul alerts readers that a hidden war is waged in the heart of every Christian. It is a struggle between the Spirit and our flesh, i.e., our fallen nature that inclines us toward evil (Rom 8:5-8). Unless we follow the Spirit's lead, the lusts of the flesh (concupiscence) will dominate our lives and enslave us in sin. When we respond to grace, we enable the Spirit to work powerfully in us by clearing out the vices that lead us away from God. Because of our weaknesses, victory in this struggle is possible but not easy (1 Cor 9:25-27) (CCC 2515-16; 1426; 2744). Back to text.
5:19 works of the flesh: The sins of the flesh include more than just sins of the body (5:19-21). They consist of every act of immorality and injustice that stems from a disordered love of the world (Jas 4:1-5; 1 Jn 2:15-17). These grave sins sever offenders from Christ (Gal 5:4) and will block their entrance into heaven if repentance is neglected (CCC 1470, 1855). Back to text.
5:21 shall not inherit the kingdom: Even Christians can forfeit their salvation if they stifle the Spirit and submit to the flesh (Rom 6:15-16). Paul posts this warning in several of his letters (Rom 8:12-13; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Eph 5:5). Back to text.
5:22 the fruit of the Spirit: The indwelling of the Spirit produces holiness in the lives of believers (Mt 12:33; Jn 15:1-6). The first fruit of this divine presence is love, the source of all that is good and the virtue upon which others are built (Rom 5:5; 2 Cor 1:22). It may be significant that Paul says "fruit" (singular) instead of "fruits" (plural), suggesting that life in the Spirit is integrated and whole, not fragmented or divided (CCC 736, 1695, 1832). Back to text.
5:24 crucified the flesh: Baptism unites believers with the saving death of Jesus, so much so that Paul says we are "crucified with Christ" (2:20; cf. Rom 6:3-4). In addition to receiving forgiveness, we die to our former way of life through the Spirit, who gives us new strength to master our passions and selfish desires (Rom 7:21-8:2) (CCC 2543, 2848). Back to text.
6:1 restore him: Fraternal correction is an unpleasant but necessary task to promote the welfare of fellow Christians and, beyond that, the whole Body of Christ. This must be an act of mercy and encouragement, not severity. Paul speaks from experience in this regard (2:11-16). Back to text.
6:2 the law of Christ: The entire life of Jesus is the law of Christian living (Mt 11:29). It is summarized in the commandment of love (Jn 13:34-35) and calls us to carry the burdens of others as Christ did for us (1 Pet 2:24). Christian charity prohibits indifference toward our neighbor but encourages us instead to bear up with his weaknesses (Rom 15:1) and make his joys and sorrows our own (Rom 12:15; 1 Cor 12:26; CCC 196570). Back to text.
6:4 test his own work: It is important to examine our lives before God and not to compare ourselves with others (2 Cor 13:5). In the end, everyone is responsible for his own actions and will give an account to the Lord (1 Cor 4:5). Back to text.
6:6 share all good things: This probably refers to material and financial support that local congregations rightfully owe their spiritual leaders (Lk 10:7; 1 Cor 9:11-14). Back to text.
6:7-9 The principle of sowing and reaping is an inflexible law of the spiritual life (Job 4:8; Jer 17:10). Just as farmers invariably harvest the same crop they planted, so every thought, word, and deed sown in this life has a consequence that springs directly from it in the next. Those who sow in the Spirit will reap holiness and heavenly glory; those who sow in the flesh can expect nothing but death and decay. Since Paul speaks of a lifetime of well-doing, patience and perseverance are needed to see the fruit of our labors (Mt 24:13; Rom 2:6-7; Heb 3:14). Back to text.
6:11 I am writing: Paul penned the postscript of Galatians himself, whereas the body of the letter was dictated to a secretary, as in Rom 16:22 and 2 Thess 3:17. He writes with large letters either for emphasis or because of poor eyesight (4:15). Back to text.
6:12-13 The Judaizers were driven by fear of persecution, probably from Jewish nationalists who pressured them to make circumcision the focus of their missionary efforts. Paul accuses them of abandoning the true gospel, not out of conviction, but out of cowardice. See notes on Gal 2:3 and 2:14. Back to text.
6:14 crucified to me: Paul reiterates what he said in 2:20 and 5:24, that in Christ our sins and worldly passions are put to death. Paul thus emphasizes that the Cross—not circumcision— is the sign of our salvation (6:15; 1 Cor 1:18). Back to text.
6:15 a new creation: The indwelling of the Spirit renews us from within and makes us sharers in the divine life (2 Pet 1:4; CCC 1214). The regenerating grace of the New Covenant will eventually permeate the entire cosmos (Rom 8:19-23; Rev 21:1). See note on 2 Cor 5:17. Back to text.
6:16 Peace and mercy: For similar benedictions, see Ps 128:6 and Sir 50:22-23. the Israel of God: The covenant family of believing Israel united with the Gentiles. See essay: Kingdom Restoration at Acts 15. Back to text.
6:17 the marks of Jesus: Property and slaves in the ancient world were branded with a mark of ownership. Paul views himself as a slave of Christ (Rom 1:1) who bears physical scars from the many persecutions that accompanied his apostolic work (Acts 14:19; 16:22; 2 Cor 11:23-29). Back to text.
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