5:21 made him to be sin: Jesus was not made a sinner or personally counted guilty of sin on the Cross. Rather, he bore the curse of death that mankind incurred because of sin (Gal 3:13; 1 Pet 2:22-24), even though he himself knew no sin, i.e., committed no sin (Jn 8:46; 1 Jn 3:5) (CCC 602-3). • Paul adopts the idiom of the Greek OT, where "sin" is a shorthand expression for a Levitical "sin offering" (Lev 4:21; 5:12; 6:25). Isaiah uses this same language for the suffering Messiah, who was expected to make himself an "offering for sin" (Is 53:10). the righteousness of God: An important expression in Paul's writings. It can refer (1) to God's own righteousness that is manifest to the world when he is faithful to his covenants (Rom 3:25-26) and (2) to the gift of righteousness that God imparts to the baptized (Phil 3:9). See note on Rom 1:17. Back to text.

6:1 in vain: Unless the Corinthians recognize and follow Paul as their apostolic father and founder, the "false apostles" (11:13) could lead them to spiritual ruin. The danger of falling from grace is a reality faced by every believer in this life (Gal 5:4; Heb 6:4-6; 2 Pet 2:20-22). Back to text.

6:2 At the acceptable time: A citation from the Greek version of Is 49:8. • Isaiah outlines the mission of the Servant Messiah: he will restore the tribal family of Israel and bring the light of salvation to the Gentiles (Is 49:6). Christ fulfills this mission through the apostolic ministry of his servants, like Paul (Acts 13:47). In this context, Paul is stressing that God is ready (now) to help the Corinthians in their time of crisis, reminding them that the window for repentance will not always remain open (CCC 859, 1041). Back to text.

6:3 no obstacle: A central part of Paul's pastoral ministry. It means that he (1) always practices what he preaches and that (2) he willingly surrenders certain apostolic rights that might burden others or be susceptible to misunderstanding (Rom 14:13; 1 Cor 9:12; 10:33). Back to text.

6:4-7 A list of Paul's afflictions (6:4-5) and virtues (6:6-7). His countless tribulations reveal his sacrificial love for the Corinthians, and his proven character shows him a genuine servant of Christ. By listing his trials, Paul is boasting that he more closely resembles the suffering and crucified Jesus than any of his critics (11:23-30). Back to text.

6:6 the Holy Spirit: The Greek can also be rendered "a holy spirit", referring to the virtue of sanctity displayed in the life of the apostle. Back to text.

6:7 weapons of righteousness: Paul's arsenal against the forces of Satan include truth, righteousness, faith, salvation, and the word of God (10:3-5; Eph 6:13-17; 1 Thess 5:8). Weapons for the right hand and the left may refer to the sword (offense) and the shield (defense) carried by soldiers of his day. Back to text.

6:8 treated as impostors: The first of seven accusations hurled at Paul by his opponents (6:8-10). He fights off these false charges with the facts, demonstrating at every step that critics see only his outward afflictions and know nothing of the spiritual motives and joys behind them. Back to text.

6:12 not restricted by us: Paul defers responsibility for the discord and distrust that has grown up between him and his readers. The Corinthians are the ones who questioned his apostleship in the first place and allowed the "false apostles" (11:13) to take advantage of them. Back to text.

6:13 I speak as to children: Paul is the spiritual father of the Corinthian Church. See note on 1 Cor 4:15. Back to text.

6:14 Do not be mismated: Or, "Do not be yoked together." • Paul's injunction is probably inspired by Deut 22:10, which forbade the Israelites from yoking different kinds of animals together. with unbelievers: Paul is not saying that Christians should sever every casual, family, or business relationship with non-Christians (1 Cor 5:9-13). He is urging them to pull away from dangerous relationships that threaten their faith. Back to text.

6:15 Belial: A Hebrew epithet for "Satan". The term is used only here in the NT but is found elsewhere in Jewish literature of the period (sometimes spelled "Beliar"). Back to text.

6:16-18 A chain of Scripture passages that remind readers of their dignity in Christ and their duty to remain pure. The citations are from Ezek 37:27, Is 52:11, Ezek 20:34, and a combination of 2 Sam 7:14 with Is 43:6. • These texts are connected with the founding of the New Covenant and God's effort to rescue Israel from the idolatry and impurity of the Gentiles. Paul sees this as the construction of a new temple out of the men and women God gathers around the Messiah. In ancient Israel, the sacredness of the sanctuary was radically incompatible with the profanities of idolatry, and indeed the entire sacrificial system of the Temple was put in place to destroy Israel's affection for idols. The same principles apply to the living sanctuary of believers. See essays: Sacrifice in the Old Testament at Lev 9 and Shun Immorality, Shun Idolatry at 1 Cor 6. Back to text.

6:16 we are the temple: The presence of God in the hearts and midst of his people makes them a living sanctuary where true worship and sacrifice rise before him (CCC 797, 1179). See note on Eph 2:21. Back to text.

7:1 make holiness perfect: The Corinthians are challenged to rededicate their lives to Christ and restore to Paul their full trust and affection. As a consequence, they must withdraw their support from the false apostles who defiled them with their teaching and poisoned them against Paul. Back to text.

7:2 taken advantage: Implies that Paul's critics accused him of selfishness and even malice (12:17-18). For this reason, he appeals often to God and the conscience of his readers to testify that his ministry among them was always sincere and driven by love (1:12, 23; 4:2; 5:11). Back to text.

7:3 die together . . .live together: An idiom for personal commitment (2 Sam 15:21). Back to text.

7:4 I am overjoyed: Paul ends the long explanation of his apostolic ministry on a high note (2:14-7:4). He is confident that the tensions between him and the Corinthians are finally easing and nearing their end (1:7). News to this effect was delivered by Titus (7:6-7). Back to text.

7:5-16 A summary and conclusion to the first part of the letter (chaps. 1-7). It resumes the report of Titus' mission to Corinth, which Paul's digression interrupted at 2:13. Back to text.

7:5 Macedonia: A Roman province in northern Greece. The afflictions that Paul and his company suffered there are unspecified and otherwise unknown. See note on 2 Cor 2:13. Back to text.

7:6 the coming of Titus: Paul was consoled by the arrival of his delegate Titus after sending him on the difficult mission to deliver a letter of rebuke to the Corinthians. His safe return to Macedonia was a cause for joy, as was his glowing report that most of the Corinthians had repented of their wrongdoing and were eager to see Paul (7:7). Back to text.

7:8 my letter: The severe letter that Paul had sent to Corinth by the hand of Titus. Although Paul wrote it with great anxiety (2:4), he was genuinely concerned for the well-being of the Corinthians and used this written form of correction as a loving means to elicit their repentance. He wanted to test their loyalty and see whether they would be "obedient" (2:9) to his fatherly authority by showing "zeal" (7:12) for him again. See note on 2 Cor 2:3. Back to text.

7:9 grieved into repenting: The Corinthians were saddened by Paul's letter and the crisis that made it necessary (7:8). They nevertheless resolved to amend their ways, repudiate the claims of the false apostles, and resubmit themselves to Paul's leadership. For his part, Paul was "overjoyed" (7:4) and again expressed "perfect confidence" in them (7:16). Back to text.

7:10 godly grief . . . worldly grief: A sharp contrast between sorrow that leads to contrition and excessive sorrow that turns away from God and ends in bitterness and despair. In the Gospels, Simon Peter exemplified the former (Mt 26:75; Lk 22:32) and Judas Iscariot the latter (Mt 27:5). Back to text.

7:12 the one who did the wrong: I.e., the unnamed offender who may have confronted Paul during his last visit to Corinth. See note on 2 Cor 2:5-11. Back to text.

8:1-9:15 The central section of the letter deals with a collection of money that Paul and his associates took up among Gentile Churches during his third missionary journey (Acts 18:23-21:16). The proceeds were gathered to help the poor Christians in Jerusalem (Rom 15:25-27; 1 Cor 16:1-4). The donation was a practical gesture of charity toward fellow believers in need, as well as a symbolic token of unity expressed by Gentile Churches on behalf of their Jewish Christian brethren. Years earlier Paul had delivered similar relief to Judean Christians stricken with famine (Acts 11:28-30). Back to text.

8:1 Macedonia: A Roman province in upper Greece, just north of Corinth. The Book of Acts indicates that Paul planted the gospel in at least three cities of this region: Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea (Acts 16:11-17:14). Back to text.

8:2 a wealth of liberality: Paul praises the Macedonians for contributing abundantly to the Jerusalem collection despite their destitute circumstances. He thus challenges the Corinthians, who are comparatively wealthy, to follow the lead of their northern neighbors by giving alms in proportion to their prosperity. These contributions are to be set aside every Sunday when they gather for worship (1 Cor 16:2) (CCC 1351). Back to text.

8:3 according to their means: Giving alms to the poor is prescribed as a work of mercy in the OT (Tob 12:8-9) as well as in the NT (Mt 6:2-4). Here Paul tries to stimulate a healthy rivalry, hoping that the generous example of the Macedonians will draw forth an even greater gift from the Corinthians. • The standard Paul erects for almsgiving is the standard tradition adopts for offerings to the Church. This is stated in the fifth precept of the Church, which obliges us to give a part of our earnings to the Lord, each according to his means (CCC 2043). Back to text.

8:6 Titus: A close associate of Paul who is coming to oversee the fund-raising efforts that began a year earlier but were never completed (8:10; 9:2). The campaign probably slowed or came to a halt because of the recent tensions that had arisen between Paul and the Corinthians. Back to text.

8:7 you excel in everything: The Corinthians were blessed in many ways, spiritually and economically. The collection affords them a prime opportunity to (1) express thanksgiving to God for what they have and (2) to lend a helping hand to those who have not. Back to text.

8:8 not as a command: Donating money to the Jerusalem fund was voluntary, not mandatory. Paul does not force them into charitable giving but invites them to "do" it because they "desire" it (8:10; 9:7). Back to text.

8:9 he was rich: The life of Jesus Christ is a lesson in generosity. Though infinitely perfect and self-sufficient in his divinity, he became man in the "form of a servant" (Phil 2:7) to save us from sin and enrich us with divine life (Jn 10:10). The contrast between Christ's wealth (divinity) and poverty (humanity) means, not that he divested himself of glory in the Incarnation, but that he disguised it behind the veil of his human flesh (Col 1:19; 2:9) (CCC 517, 2546). Back to text.

8:12 not . . . what he has not: Paul does not want the Corinthians to overextend themselves, zealously pledging money they are unable to give. Back to text.

8:14 equality: Paul envisions a fair distribution of burdens and blessings. Since the spiritual blessings of Israel have spread to all nations in Christ, the Gentiles are obliged to return material blessings in gratitude (Rom 15:27). In this case, the prosperity enjoyed by Corinthian Gentiles should help to alleviate the poverty of Jewish Christians in Jerusalem (CCC 2833). Back to text.

8:15 He who gathered much: A citation from Ex 16:18. • The Exodus generation of Israel lived on daily rations of manna provided by the Lord. Because he ensured a fair amount of bread to each family, there was no need to hoard it or store it away. To do so would have displayed a lack of trust in his Providence. Paul is urging believers to imitate the Lord by distributing their resources so that no one in the family of faith will lack basic necessities. Prosperity is a blessing meant to be shared. Back to text.

8:18 the brother who is famous: Unidentified, but apparently well-known. preaching of the gospel: The Greek is simply "in the gospel". Some ancient writers identified this "famous" brother with the evangelist Luke and the "gospel" in question with the Gospel of Luke. This is uncertain, and to an extent improbable, since in Paul's letters the word "gospel" refers to the message of salvation, not to a written narration of Jesus' life and ministry. It is true, in any case, that Luke was one of Paul's missionary associates (2 Tim 4:11; Philem 24). Back to text.

8:19 appointed: Delegates were specially commissioned to deliver the charitable donations of the Gentile Churches to the poor of Jerusalem. The Jewish theologian Philo uses this same Greek expression for the appointment of envoys to deliver the firstfruits offering of the Diaspora synagogues to the Jerusalem Temple (Special Laws 1, 78). For the possibility that Paul viewed the relief offering in a similar way, see note on Acts 20:16. Back to text.

8:21 what is honorable: Paul sends a delegation of trusted men to manage the Jerusalem collection in Corinth (Titus and two unnamed brothers; see 8:16-18, 22). This strategy is meant to eliminate suspicions that Paul had initiated the collection because of greed or selfish motives. Entrusting the task to men of proven character ensures that the money will be collected properly, handled honestly, and delivered safely. Back to text.

8:22 sending our brother: Another anonymous companion of Paul (8:18). Back to text.

9:1-5 Paul challenges the Corinthians to uphold their previous commitment to his collection (9:2). He has already boasted to others of their zeal and readiness to be generous. Should they fall short of his expectations, they will humiliate Paul for being so confident and especially themselves for being stingy and double-minded (9:4). Back to text.

9:6 reap bountifully: An agricultural analogy. It illustrates that a direct relationship exists between our present efforts and the future rewards that will accrue to them. Heroic generosity in this case will produce an abundant harvest of blessings, while minimal giving will yield minimal blessings (Prov 22:8-9; Gal 6:7-9). Back to text.

9:7 God loves a cheerful giver: Charitable gifts must flow from a joyful heart (Sir 35:9; Rom 12:8), not one that hesitates or begrudges the gift (Deut 15:10). Reluctant givers show themselves to be attached to their wealth; their donations, sizable or not, are thus empty before God. • Almsgiving rejoices the giver and renews the receiver. Joyful and cheerful, then, is the one who attends to the poor, for he acquires heavenly treasures by a few small coins; and unlike the taxpayer, who is compelled by penalties, he is urged by love and invited by rewards (Maximus of Turin, Sermons 71). Back to text.

9:9 He scatters abroad: A citation from Ps 112:9. • The Psalmist is celebrating the greatness of the righteous man. Because he is just and generous toward his neighbor (Ps 112:5), he will be blessed by the Lord and stand secure for ever. Back to text.

9:10 supplies seed  . . . and bread: An allusion to Is 55:10. • Isaiah praises God as the source of every blessing. He is the One who sends rain to awaken life in the fields and provide food for the world. These natural blessings are an image of the spiritual blessings that God rains down upon the generous heart. Back to text.

9:11 You will be enriched: Sacrificial generosity is richly rewarded by God, who outmatches our earthly gifts with blessings that are lasting and heavenly (Tob 4:7-11; Mt 19:29; Lk 6:38). Back to text.

9:12 many thanksgivings: As a result of Paul's collection, (1) the poor will receive aid, (2) God will be praised and thanked, and (3) the Corinthians will be greatly blessed. Back to text.

9:15 his inexpressible gift!: Probably the "surpassing grace" of 9:14. Back to text.

10:1-13:14 Paul spends the final chapters of the letter aggressively defending his apostleship. While he earlier (chaps. 1-9) addressed the majority of the Corinthians who still support him, he turns now to confront the impenitent minority who have embraced the "false apostles" (11:13). Throughout this section, Paul unmasks the illegitimacy of these "superlative apostles" (11:5; 12:11) and even threatens to discipline members who refuse to separate from them (10:6; 13:2). This shift of focus between the earlier and latter parts of the letter accounts for the change in Paul's tone, from conciliatory (chaps. 1-9) to confrontational (chaps. 10-13). Back to text.

10:1 I who am humble: Opponents charged Paul with being bold at a distance but mild and even timid in their presence. This alleged inconsistency was especially true of his discipline: they felt that his written threats were never matched with decisive action in person (1 Cor 4:18-21). Paul, however, imitates the gentleness of Christ by reserving severity and discipline as a last resort; he threatens punishment in his letters to avert the need for it when he visits (10:6; 13:2, 10). Back to text.

10:3-6 Behind Paul's visible opponents in Corinth lurk powers that are invisible and demonic. He is confident, however, that his ministry leads divine power to the world through weapons of spiritual warfare: preaching, prayer, Scripture, and the Sacraments. Not even the proud and sophisticated arguments of his rivals can withstand the truth of his gospel, which alone brings every thought of man under the Lordship of Christ. See note on 2 Cor 6:7. • There is no excuse for thinking that some sins are punished while others go unpunished. The apostle says every proud obstacle will be punished; and every sin, because it expresses contempt for the divine law, is a proud height that exalts itself against the knowledge of God (St. Basil, On the Judgment of God). Back to text.

10:8 our authority: Paul's apostleship is a constructive mission, not a destructive one. The only reason he defends his authority so vigorously is that his rivals deny it so emphatically. Back to text.

10:10 His letters . . . his speech: Critics charged that Paul was an assertive and forceful writer but an unimpressive speaker. See word study: Unskilled at 2 Cor 11. Back to text.

10:12 compare themselves: The false apostles not only discredit Paul, they compete with one another for prestige in the Corinthian Church. They have to commend themselves with letters of recommendation (3:1) because, unlike Paul, they are not commissioned by God (1:21; 2:17; 10:18). Back to text.

10:13-18 Paul accuses the false teachers of trespassing into his own missionary territory and taking credit for the spiritual growth of the Corinthians. Whatever the claims of these troublemakers, Paul is the true "father" of the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:15) since he was the first to bring them new life in the gospel (2 Cor 10:14; Acts 18:1-18). Back to text.

10:13 boast beyond limit: This probably has two, interrelated, meanings. (1) Paul and his companions do not invade mission fields for which others are responsible. That is, they stay within the territorial limits assigned to them without taking credit for labors done in "another's field" (10:16; Rom 15:20). (2) Paul and company do not boast beyond the acceptable limits of humility but give the Lord full credit for their successful ministry (10:17). See note on 1 Cor 4:6. Back to text.

10:16 lands beyond you: Paul aspires to carry the gospel to Rome and as far west as Spain (Acts 19:21; Rom 15:24, 28). Back to text.

10:17 boast of the Lord: A paraphrase of the Greek rendition of Jer 9:24. • Jeremiah warns Israel not to boast of its wisdom, might, or riches (9:23). The Israelites should delight only in the Lord, from whom all these blessings flow. See note on 1 Cor 1:31. Back to text.

11:1 bear with me: Paul asks readers to tolerate a little boasting on his part, even though he dislikes it and knows it is foolish. It is because the Corinthians have failed to support him in the face of criticisms that he is forced to defend himself (12:11). Several times he apologizes for engaging in such folly (11:1618, 21, 23; 12:1, 6). Back to text.

11:2 I betrothed you to Christ: Paul is the "father" (1 Cor 4:15) of the Corinthians and thus in charge of safeguarding their purity before marriage. He is preserving them for Christ, the husband, who is already betrothed to them by covenant but who waits to receive them into his home as a chaste bride (literally, "virgin"). This marital imagery is frequent in the NT (Mt 25:1-13; Eph 5:23-32; Rev 19:7) (CCC 505, 796). Back to text.

11:3 the serpent deceived Eve: An allusion to Gen I 3:1-7. • Paul looks back to the Fall of Adam and Eve to warn readers that the same danger once present in the Garden of Eden is now lurking in Corinth. He fears that the Corinthians, like Eve, will be lured away from Christ by the seductive voice of evil. Satan is once again the intruder, this time disguised as the "false apostles" (11:13). Back to text.

11:4 another Jesus: A distorted message about Jesus in conflict with the apostolic gospel. Back to text.

11:5 superlative apostles: A sarcastic title for the counterfeit apostles in Corinth (12:11). It suggests they viewed themselves as superior to Paul. See note on 2 Cor 11:13. Back to text.

11:7-11 Paul defends his practice of refusing financial assistance from the Corinthians. He was able to support himself among them by donations from other Churches (11:8) and by manual labor, probably tentmaking (Acts 18:3). The Corinthians unfortunately took this as an insult and an indication that Paul did not love them (2 Cor 11:11). To counter this, Paul reveals several reasons for this pastoral decision. (1) He wished to lay no unnecessary burden on them (11:9). (2) He hoped to accentuate the stark difference between his ministry and that of his opponents, who greedily took advantage of the Corinthians' resources (11:20). (3) As their spiritual "father" (1 Cor 4:15), he wanted to provide for them in the same way that parents do for their children (2 Cor 12:14). In the end, Paul's tireless labor was a greater expression of love than accepting their monetary gifts (12:15). See note on 2 Cor 2:17. Back to text.

11:9 from Macedonia: Possibly from the Christians in Philippi (Phil 4:15-18). Back to text.

11:13 false apostles: The precise identity and mission of these agitators are unknown. Paul provides us with only general information: (1) they were Israelites (11:22), (2) they furnished letters of recommendation for themselves (3:1), (3) they preached a foreign gospel (11:4), (4) they accepted financial support for their services (2:17), (5) they took advantage of the Corinthians (11:20), (6) they were outsiders who invaded Paul's missionary field during his absence (10:13-18), and (7) they were severely critical of Paul (6:8; 10:2, 10). Some scholars have argued on the basis of this that the Corinthian impostors were like the Judaizers in Galatia who pressured Christians to accept circumcision and embrace the entire ritual law of the Old Covenant. In this case, they may have come from Judea to collect money (taxes) for the Jerusalem Temple. Back to text.

Word Study

Unskilled (2 Cor 11:6)

Idiōtēs (Gk.): a "layman", "amateur", or "one who is untrained". The word appears only here in 2 Cor and four times in the rest of the NT. Its precise meaning depends upon the context in which it is found. In Acts 4:13, it refers to men who are uneducated. In 1 Cor 14:16, 23-24, it denotes an outsider not initiated into a local Church. Paul uses the word here to admit that he is not trained in the art of professional public speaking. His opponents presumably are and jeer at the lack of eloquence and refinement in his preaching (2 Cor 10:10). This is why Paul compares himself with Moses, who ministered to Israel despite his own struggles with oral communication (Ex 4:10; note on 2 Cor 3:5). Interestingly, one of Paul's contemporaries, the Jewish historian Josephus, puts this same term in the mouth of Moses when he complained to the Lord of being an "unlearned man" (Gk. idiotes aner), unable to persuade the Israelites to follow him (Antiquities 2, 271). Like Moses, Paul has a message from the Lord, and its power to save is not lessened by the personal weaknesses of the one who preaches it (Rom 1:16; 1Cor 1:17; 2:1-5).

11:14 an angel of light: Satan is a master of deception, adept at hiding his darkness behind the mask of innocence and light. The "false apostles" (11:13) are intruders who collaborate with the devil and his plan to destroy the Church in Corinth. Jesus warned that such "false prophets" would masquerade as wolves in sheep's clothing (Mt 7:15). Back to text.

11:15 Their end: The eternal destiny of Paul's opponents will correspond to their present wickedness. Back to text.

11:20 For you bear it: Paul chides the Corinthians for tolerating the aggressive tactics of his rivals. Their lack of resistance enabled the impostors to exploit them and wield reckless authority in their Church. Back to text.

11:21-12:10 An impassioned account of Paul's credentials, sometimes called the "Fool's Speech". It falls into two parts: the first recounts the apostle's numerous afflictions (11:22-33), the second his heavenly journeys (12:1-10). Paul boasts of these experiences to counter the claims of his opponents, who brag that their credentials and leadership skills outmatch his own. Paul insists otherwise: unlike them, he follows the footsteps of Christ by suffering and laying down his life in service to others (4:7-12; Lk 9:23; 1 Pet 2:21). Back to text.

11:22 Hebrews: The term can have a linguistical sense, referring to peoples who speak Aramaic (Acts 6:1), or a genealogical sense, referring to the descendants of Eber, the great-grandson of Shem (Gen 10:21). Perhaps both senses are intended here. Israelites: Descendants of the patriarch Jacob, renamed Israel (Gen 32:28). So am I: Paul boasts the same genealogical and linguistic credentials as his adversaries (Acts 21:40; Rom 11:1; Phil 3:4-5). Back to text.

11:23 imprisonments: Several are mentioned in the NT (Acts 16:23; 24:27; 28:16). Back to text.

11:24 forty lashes less one: A form of Jewish punishment administered by synagogue officials. Although the Torah prescribed 40 stripes, the Jews generally gave 39 to ensure the maximum penalty was not exceeded (Deut 25:1-3). That Paul endured this treatment five times over displays his unwavering commitment to bring the gospel to Israel, no matter the cost (Acts 9:15-16). See note on Acts 13:5. Back to text.

11:25 beaten with rods: A form of Roman punishment that Paul endured at Philippi (Acts 16:22). As a Roman citizen, he should have had legal protection from this abuse (Acts 16:3740). I was stoned: This happened on his first missionary journey in Lystra (Acts 14:19-20). I have been shipwrecked: This does not include the shipwreck in Acts 27:13-44, which happened a few years later. The Book of Acts never mentions these earlier hardships, although it does indicate that Paul embarked on numerous sea voyages (Acts 13:4, 13; 14:26; 16:11; etc.). Back to text.

11:26 false brethren: This may refer (1) to those who claimed to be Christians but were not or (2) to Judaizing Christians who opposed Paul's ministry and tried to impose the ritual and sacrificial laws of the Old Covenant on Gentile converts to Christianity (cf. Acts 15:1-2; Gal 2:4). The latter meaning would link them to the "false apostles" in Corinth (11:13). Back to text.

11:30 I will boast: Paul boasts only of his suffering and humiliation, i.e., those things that unite him with Christ, who was "crucified in weakness" (13:4). Back to text.

11:32-33 Paul had to flee from Damascus when Jewish opponents from the synagogue conspired with the city's governor to arrest him and kill him as a troublemaker (Acts 9:23-25). This plot is dated within the reign of the Nabatean ruler King Aretas IV, who controlled the city between A.D. 37 and 40. This was Paul's first experience of persecution as a Christian, only a few years after his conversion in the same city (Acts 9:23-25). This dramatic escape is one more example of his weakness, making him look more like a fugitive than like a hero. Back to text.

12:1-10 Paul remembers a heavenly journey experienced years earlier. Though he is unable to articulate the precise nature of this rapture (in body or simply in spirit), it gave him a foretaste of glory that would encourage him through earthly trials. The NT indicates that Paul received numerous visions and revelations (12:1) throughout his apostolic career (Acts 9:1-8; 16:9; 18:9; 22:17-18; Gal 1:12). Back to text.

12:2 I know a man: Although his language is indirect, 12:7 makes it clear that Paul is speaking about his own experience. fourteen years ago: Corresponds approximately to A.D. 42, when Paul was in Antioch (Acts 11:25-26) or Jerusalem (Acts 11:30). See introduction: Author and Date. the third heaven: Reflects a common Jewish tradition that the Lord stacked the "heavens" three levels high: (1)the first heaven is the atmosphere of birds and clouds; (2) above that stands the realm of the sun and stars; (3) and beyond that lies the dwelling of God. Paul's journey took him to the highest heaven, "Paradise" (12:3), where he caught a glimpse of eternal glory. Back to text.

12:4 cannot be told: Paul was bound to silence by a prophetic restraint. This means he was not permitted to disclose the heavenly secrets he saw and heard, not that it was necessarily impossible to speak of them with words. Back to text.

12:7 a thorn: Sometimes interpreted as a sickness or physical disability, such as failing eyesight (Gal 4:13-15; 6:11). Others connect it with the Hebrew idiom used in Num 33:55, where it denotes personal opposition or harassment. Either way, God allowed Paul to suffer so that he would maintain perspective and not take pride in his heavenly experiences. Even the heights of Paul's mystical life were tempered with suffering and weakness. messenger of Satan: Like righteous Job, Paul endured afflictions that were permitted by God and administered by the devil (Job 1-2). • Some ask if the devil is good because he is useful. We respond that he is only evil, but God who is good and almighty draws from the devil's malice many just and good things. The devil possesses a will that is bent on evil, not the Providence of God that brings good from him (St. Augustine, Against the Manichaeans 2, 28, 42). Back to text.

12:9 My grace is sufficient: Paul's petition for relief was denied (12:8), indicating that his suffering was serving a higher purpose in the plan of God (Rom 8:28). Grace was given him to endure these trials and make him rely upon the Lord. His experience shows that God gives us what we need and not always what we want (CCC 268, 273, 1508). Back to text.

12:11 commended by you: Paul's boasting would have been unnecessary had the Corinthians defended him against the attacks of the false apostles. See note on 2 Cor 11:1. superlative apostles: A sarcastic reference to the "false apostles" (11:13) who invaded the Corinthian Church (11:5). Back to text.

12:12 signs of a true apostle: Visible manifestations of divine power. Paul does not specify the exact nature of these extraordinary deeds but appeals to them as confirmation of his apostleship (cf. Mk 16:20; Rom 15:18-19; Heb 2:4). If Paul were a fraud, as his critics claim, such miracles would not have accompanied his message. Back to text.

12:14 the third time: An announcement of Paul's forthcoming visit (13:1, 10). His first trip to Corinth lasted over 18 months (Acts 18:1-18), while his second proved to be a short and distressing visit (2 Cor 2:1). As before, Paul does not plan to burden the congregation by accepting payment for his apostolic work. See note on 2 Cor 11:7-11. parents for their children: Paul is the spiritual father of the Corinthians (6:13). Because he is responsible for their Christian formation, he hopes he will not be humiliated or disappointed by misbehaving children when he comes (12:21). See note on 1 Cor 4:15. Back to text.

12:15 spend and be spent: Instead of demanding payment for his labor, Paul is willing to spend himself for the good of souls. His sacrificial zeal for the gospel (Phil 2:17) enables him to endure discomforts that he knows will benefit the wavering Corinthians. Back to text.

12:16 crafty, you say: Suspicions were apparently raised that Paul was mishandling the funds of the Jerusalem collection (chaps. 8-9). Critics probably accused him of secretly pocketing some of the money for himself, even though he appeared to live in poverty while among them (11:9). These accusations were empty: Paul's conscience was clear (1:12) because his conduct was irreproachable (4:2). See note on 2 Cor 8:21. Back to text.

Word Study

Paradise (2 Cor 12:3)

Paradeisos (Gk.): a Persian loan word meaning "garden" or "park", used three times in the NT. The term makes its first biblical appearance in the Greek version in Gen 2:8, where it refers to the Garden of Eden. Here, before his rebellion, man lived enfolded in the blessings and peace of God. Centuries later, the Prophets foretold that the blissful conditions of Eden would reappear in the future (Is 51:3; Ezek 36:35). The NT sharpens this expectation, indicating that the true garden of paradise is supernatural and heavenly, not natural and merely earthly. It is nothing less than the eternal dwelling of God, where Jesus promised to accompany the good thief after death (Lk 23:43) and where Paul was transported in a mystical journey (2 Cor 12:3). This heavenly paradise is the eternal dwelling that awaits the saints (Rev 2:7).

12:21 have not repented: Although most of the Corinthians regained their trust in Paul (7:9), a minority remained impenitent and continued to criticize his apostleship. These unrepentant few likely supported the "false apostles" (11:13) and followed their immoral example. Back to text.

13:1 two or three witnesses: Judicial criteria drawn from Deut 17:6 and 19:15. • The Mosaic Law forbade Israel to punish crimes on the basis of a single witness. Accused persons were thus assured a fair criminal process and that punishment would not be administered without credible and corroborating testimony. Paul, like Jesus, applies this principle in a New Covenant context (Mt 18:16-17). He thus assures the Corinthians that detractors will not be expelled from their fellowship and liturgy without a just examination of the facts (1 Tim 5:19). Even so, Paul is ready to punish disobedience if necessary (10:6; 13:2). See note on 1 Cor 5:13. Back to text.

13:3 you desire proof: This sums up all the criticisms leveled against Paul, since some of the Corinthians, under the deceitful influence of false teachers, doubted and even denied that Christ was speaking through him as a genuine apostle. Paul strategically applies this same standard to his critics in 13:5 to test whether or not Christ dwells within them. Back to text.

13:4 crucified in weakness: The Cross of Christ stands behind many of Paul's references to weakness (1 Cor 1:23-25; 2:2-3; 2 Cor 11:30; 12:5, 10). Just as the humiliating death of Jesus gave way to his powerful Resurrection, Paul and the other apostles willingly embrace suffering and shame so that the risen life of Jesus can flow out to others. The point is that God's power operates through human weakness, not in spite of it (2 Cor 12:9). Back to text.

13:9 your improvement: Paul wants most to restore his readers to spiritual health. Both Corinthian letters reveal his concern for them and the efforts he was willing to make to bring them from infancy to spiritual maturity (1 Cor 3:1-3). Back to text.

13:12 a holy kiss: A gesture of affection and Christian brotherhood (Rom 16:16; 1 Pet 5:14). It is a common expression of hospitality in the Near East, equivalent to a friendly handshake in the modern Western world. Back to text.

13:14 One of the earliest and clearest expressions of faith in the Trinity found in the NT. It has been used for centuries as a liturgical benediction (CCC 249, 1109). Back to text.

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