Prof. Aziz Surial The Coptic Contribution to Christian Civilization

The �Copts �occasionally �have �been �described �as �a �schismatic eastern �Christian �minority, �a �lonely �community �in �the �land �of their �forebears. �They �have �been �forgotten �since �they �chose living �in �oblivion �after �the �tragedy �of �Chalcedon �(451AD), which �was �followed �by �a �new �wave �of �persecution �inflicted upon �them �by �fellow �Christians �and �Byzantine �rulers. �Though not �unknown �to �medieval �and �early �modern �travellers �from Europe, �Western �Christendom �appeared �to �have �lost �sight �of the �Copts �until �1860, �when �a �Presbyterian �mission �came �to convert them to Christianity and the Coptic Archbishop of Asiut asked them the rhetorical question:� ��We have been living with Christ for more than 1800 years, how long have you been living with him?�

However,� �since� �the� �rediscovery� �of� �the� �Copts� �and� �their Christianity, �interest �has �been �intensified �in �the �attempt �to explore the religious traditions and the historical background of this most ancient form of primitive faith. Scholars of all creeds were stunned as the pages of Coptic history began to reveal the massive contributions of the Copts to Christian civilisation in its formative �centuries. �This �brief �essay �is �intended �to �outline �the major �segments �of �these �contributions �and �show �the �need �for the rewriting of numerous chapters of early Christian history.

But �let �me �first �define �the �term ��Copt� �and �introduce �you �to

some of the relevant data about the community. In all simplicity, this term is equivalent to the word �Egyptian.� It is derived from the Greek Aigyptos, which in turn is a corruption of the ancient Egyptian Hak-ka-Ptah - the house of the temple of the spirit of Ptah �a �most �highly �revered �deity �in �Egyptian �mythology; �this was �the �name �of �Memphis, �the �oldest �capital �of �the �unified Upper and Lower Egypt.

When �the �Arabs �came �in �the �seventh �century, �Egypt �became known �as ��Dar �al-Qibt,� �home �of �the �Copts �who �were �the Christian� �Egyptians� �to� �distinguish� �them� �from� �the� �native Muslims.� �Ethnically,� �the� �Copts� �were� �neither� �Semitic� �nor Hamitic,� �but� �may� �be� �described� �as� �the� �descendants� �of� �a Mediterranean race that entered the Nile Valley in unrecorded times. As such they are the successors of the ancient Egyptians, sometimes even defined as the �modern sons of the Pharaohs�. Traditionally, �the �Copts �kept �together �in �the �same �villages �or the �same �quarters �of �larger �cities �until �the �dawn �of �modern democracy �in �the �Middle �East �during �the �nineteenth �century, which�� rendered�� their�� segregation�� quite�� meaningless. Numerically, �it �is �not �easy �to �give �a �precise �estimate �of �the Copts. Whereas the official census tends to reduce their number

to less than three million, largely for political and administrative reasons, �some �Copts �contend �that �they �are �ten �million, �which may �be �an �exaggeration. �A �conservative �estimate �may �be �set between six and seven million until an authoritative and factual census,� �now� �being� �conducted� �by� �the� �church,� �reaches� �its completion.

The �wider �circle �of �Coptic �obedientiaries, �who �are �not �ethnic Copts �however, �includes �at �least �twenty �million �Ethiopians, more �than �five �million �other �Africans �and �another �million �of mixed racial origins in other continents. Doctrinally, therefore, followers of Coptic Alexadrine Christianity must be reckoned in excess �of �thirty �million, �making �the �Copt �Church �one �of �the

largest religious units in Eastern Christendom.

The �origins �of �Coptic �Chrisitianity �need �no �great �elaboration. St. �Mark �the �Evangelist �is �its �recognised �founder �and �first patriarch, in the fourth decade of the first century. During the first� �two� �centuries,� �there� �was� �a� �continuous� �admixture� �of paganisms and Christianity in many parts of Egypt. But the fact remains �that �Christianity �must �have �penetrated �the �country �far enough �to �justify �the �discovery �of �the �oldest �biblical �papyri Coptic language buried in the sands of remote regions in Upper Egypt. �Most �of �these �predate �the �oldest �authoritative �Greek versions �of �the �Scripture �in �the �fourth �and �fifth �centuries including� �Codex� �Sinaiticus,� �the� �Codex� �Alexandrinus,� �the Vaticanus �and �the �Codex �Ephraemi �Syri �Rescriptus, �which constitute in all probability four of the fifty copies of the Bible ordered by Constantine the Great after he declared Christianity the official religion of the state by the Edict of Milan in 312AD. Fragments of those papyri dating from the second century, both Coptic �and �Greek, �are �to �be �found �in �numerous �manuscript repositories �in �the �world. �The �most �monumental �collection �is the� �Chester� �Beatty� �Papyri,� �now� �in� �Dublin,� �Ireland.� �These manuscripts have been dated by the classical scholar V. Wilcken

at �about �200AD. �Another �staggering �papyrus �collection, �this time in Sahidic and Sub-Akhmimic Coptic dialects, numbering fifty-one �texts, �thirty-six �hitherto �unknown, �most �Gnostic �or apocryphal �was �discovered �far �up �the �Nile �Valley �at �Nag- Hammadi �in �the �1930�s. �The �importance �of �this �discovery, which is regarded by scholars studying its contents as peer and parallel to the Dead Sea Scrolls, lies in the fact that it was found

in the remote regions of Upper Egypt. All this proves beyond a shadow of doubt the depth of the penetration of the new faith among the Copts.

THE CATECHETICAL SCHOOL OF ALEXANDRIA

In fact the fiery activity which flared up in the field of Biblical and �theological �studies �in �Egypt �must �be �identified �with �the foundation �and �development �of �the �Catechetical �School �of Alexandria before 200AD. The first mention of it was in the life of Pantaenus, its first president, who died in 190 AD. This is the earliest �contribution �of �the �Copts �to �Christian �civilisation �and culture. Created as a rival to the ancient pagan Museion of the Ptolemies, which survived until the assassination of the Hypatia

in 415AD, the Catechetical School became the first great seat of

Christian learning in the whole world.

We �must �remember �that �primitive �Christianity �came �to �the world and to Egypt as what may be described as an amorphous faith, based on the life and sayings or wisdom of Jesus without formal� �dogmatisation.� �It� �was� �in� �this� �fortress� �of� �Christian scholarship, �the �Catechetical �School, �that �Christianity �and �the Bible� �were� �subjected� �to� �the� �very� �rigorous� �studies,� �which generated the first systematic theology and the most extensive exegetic enquiry into the Scripture. The greatest names of the era �are �associated �with �that �institution, �which �continued �to flourish �in �the �age �of �Roman �persecutions. �Pantaenus, �the founding �father �and �first �president �of �the �School, �started �by bridging �the �gap �between �dynastic �Egypt �and �Greek �Gospels through� �the� �propagation� �of� �the� �use� �of� �the� �archaic� �Greek alphabet� �instead� �of� �the� �cumbersome� �Demotic� �script,� �thus rendering the Bible more readily accessible to the Coptic reader. His successor was Clement of Alexandria, a liberal who wanted

to reconcile Christian tenets with Greek philosophy. The School finally came of age under Origen, a scholar of pure Coptic stock who is thought to have been the most prolific author of all time. Six thousand tracts, treatises, and other works of considerable bulk �have �been �cited �under �his �name �by �his �old �pupil, �bishop

Epiphanius �of �Salamis �in �Cyprus, �though �his �literary �remains now �are �fragmentary �and �we �must �assume �that �this �number could �have �been �possible �only �by �a �collaborative �effort �of �the whole School. His Hexapla, a collation of texts of the Bible in six �columns �from �Greek �and �Hebrew �sources, �is �only �one instance �of �his �gigantic �contributions. �His �labors �in �exegesis went �beyond �those �of �any �other �expositor, �for �he �wrote �most detailed commentaries on every book of the Old Testament and the New. He established for the first time in history a systematic theology from which all students of divinity start to this day. His philosophy �generated �much �controversy, �not �only �in �his �time, but �in �succeeding �centuries. �We �hear �of �the �existence �of �two camps �bearing �his �name �in �subsequent �periods: �the �Origenist and anit-origenist schools of thought. His pupils included some of �the �most �illustrious �divines �of �all �time. �Among �them �was Heraclas (230-46) whose preferment to the throne of St. Mark carried with it the title of� ��Pope� for the first time in history and �long �before �the �Bishop �of �Rome �(Episcopus �Romanorum Servus Servorum Dei) claimed that dignity. Another pupil was Didymus �the �Blind, �a �forceful �theologian �and �author �who combated Arianism. Actually the well-known pillars of the faith

in� �the� �Alexandrian� �hierarchy� �were� �both� �graduates� �of� �the Catechetical �School, �Athanasius �the �Apostolic �and �Cyril �the Great. The international panel of its scholars who contributed to Christian �scholarship �in �the �Byzantine �and �Roman �worlds �was represented by such immortal names as St. Gregory Nazienzen, St. Basil, St Jerome and Rufinus, the ecclesiastical historian. It as a picturesque age, an age of great saints and heretics, an age

in �which �the �Copts �worshipped �openly �in �defiance �of �their Roman persecutors and sought the crown of martyrdom rather than �pray �in �catacombs �and �subterranean �galleries. �An �age �in which �paganism �finally �gasped �its �last �idolatrous �breath �under Julian �the �Apostate �(332�63) �and �in �which �the �Museion �was

liquidated as the last refuge of Neoplatonist pagan philosophy. In �summary, �the �foundation �of �an �institutionalised �system �of Christian� �divinity� �was� �laid� �down� �within� �the� �walls� �of� �the Catechetical School of Alexandria and in the deliberations and massive writings of its theologians.

It� was� on� this� foundation� that� the� next� universal� movement could �formulate �Christian �doctrines �and �dogmas �through �the official gatherings of the bishops of Christendom in the General Councils of the Church. In other words, the formal emergence of Christianity as an organised religious system passed through two stages in its evolution. The first took place in the open and informal� �philosophical-theological� �arena� �of� �the� �Catechetical School, the equivalent of the modern university with its free and unbridled �thinking. �This �stage �was �in �advance �of �the �second, congressional �phase �of �codification �of �the �outcome �of �those deliberations. �In �the �case �of �Christianity, �the �second �phase �is described as the Oecumenical Movement, in which the hierarchy of all churches met to decide what was canonical and what was uncanonical in Christian beliefs and traditions.

THE OECUMENICAL MOVEMENT

This movement began as early as the reign of Constantine the Great, under whom Christianity was recognized as the religion of� �the� �state� �by� �the� �Edict� �of� �Milan� �in� �312AD.� �With� �the disappearance�� of�� Roman� persecution� against which�� the Christians �had �to �present �a �united �front, �elements �of �disunity began �to �surface �among �those �same �Christians �in �matters �of faith. �Heresies �arose �with �the �vehemence �of �intense �piety �and split the faithful into rival camps, which imperiled the peace of the �Empire. �Perhaps �the �most �dangerous �situation �occurred �in Alexandria �in �the �war �of �words �which �broke �out �between �the

followers of Arius and Athanasius, for both groups claimed to profess the only true orthodoxy, and each of them had a strong army� �of� �adherents� �to� �the� �extent� �that� �both� �factions� �had penetrated �the �inner �circle �of �the �imperial �court. �The �problem was� �the� �principle� �of� �consubstantiation.� �The�� Homoousion, signifying that the Father and the Son were one and of the same essence, �was �the �thesis �of �Athanasius �in �opposition �to �Arius, whose conception was that of the Homoiousion, indicating that the Son was of divine origin but only of like essence, begotten of �the �Father �as �an �instrument �for �the �creation �of �the �world, hence the Father is unequal in eternity. Note that the little iota

in the middle of one word made all the difference in the world and shook the Empire to its very foundations, and the peril of civil war between the contestant camps loomed on the horizon. In passing, it might be said that a parallel of the latter scheme of thought �predated �Arius �in �the �idea �of �the �'demiurge' �of �late antique Neoplatonism and Gnosticism.

Amidst all these confusions and in order to bring unity back to the� �Church� �and� �the� �Empire,� �Constantine� �inaugurated� �the Oecumenical �Movement �by �calling �to �order �the �Council �of Nicaea �in �325 �under �the �presidency �of �the �old �bishop �of Alexandria. �This �was �Alexandros �(d.328), �who �came �with �a young �and �able �deacon, �the �future �Athanasius, �destined �to follow him on the throne of St. Mark. Athanasius was of course the� moving� spirit� behind� the� throne.� Against� some� accepted views �in �the �science �of �petrology, �he �is �revealed �to �be �Coptic and �not �Greek. �Recently �it �has �been �found �that �Athanasius wrote �in �Coptic, �though �most �of �his �monumental �works �were composed in Greek. Greeks knew no Coptic and had no need for �using �it. �But �the �educated �Copts �were �masters �of �both tongues, �and �Athanasius �belonged �to �this �class. �Furthermore, Athanasius spent two years in one of his five exiles in the Red Sea �wilderness �with �St. �Anthony �the �Great, �whose �life �he

compiled in a famous Vita. It is well known that Anthony was an illiterate Copt and spoke nothing but Coptic, which was his only means of communication with his illustrious visitor. It is, therefore, �not �unreasonable �to �relate �Athanasian �contributions

to the native Church of Egypt.

It is beyond the limits of this work to cover the immensity of the Nicaean �canons �and �the �literature �in �which �they �have �been discussed. But certain criteria are clear from the deliberations of the �Council �under �Coptic �leadership. �First �and �foremost, �the Nicaean �Creed �was �sanctioned �by �the �Council. �Composed �by Athanasius, �it �remains �a �triumph �for �Alexandrine �theology �to this �day. �Of �historic �importance �was �the �creation �for �the �first time� �of� �a� �Bishopric� �of� �Constantinople.� �A� �gift� �from� �a predominantly�� Alexandrine�� Council,�� the�� same�� bishopric paradoxically �joined �forces �with �the �Bishopric �of �Rome �two centuries later to degrade the former Alexandrine benefactor.

But �let �me �first �sum �up �the �momentous �events �in �the �field �of

Christology which occurred between 325 and 451, from Nicaea

to �Chalcedon, �to �signal �the �parting �of �the �ways �between �East and West. In that period, three major Councils were convened, one at Constantinople (381) and two at Ephesus (431 and 449), and all seemed to be under Alexandrine control. They dealt with two new major heresies: Eutychianism, which denuded Christ of his humanity, and Nestorianism, which relinquished the unity of Christ's�� divinity�� and�� humanity.�� Constantinople�� condemned Eutychius, though he was reinstated at Ephesus II after abjuring his former views. At Ephesus I, Nestorius clung to his view that Mary �should �be �pronounced �Mother �of �Jesus �in �the �flesh, �not Mother �of �God �(Theotokos), �a �thesis �that �implied �a �cleavage between the human and the divine nature of Christ. Again under the influence of Dioscorus I, a Coptic patriarch, the formula of Cyril �the �Great �(412-44) �was �accepted, �and �Nestorius �and �his teaching was condemned, leading to the schism of the Nestorian

Church. What matters here is the question of Coptic leadership

in �definitions �of �Christology. �St. �Cyril �was �succeeded �by �his nephew,�� the�� aforementioned�� Dioscorus�� I�� (444-54),�� a determined and active theologian whom the Copts describe as a pillar �of �the �faith, �while �the �Romans �stigmatized �him �as �the leader �of �a �Robber �Council �(Latrocinium) �because �he �had judged Eutychius without reading the Tome or letter of Leo I to Ephesus II.

Feeling was running high in Rome and Constantinople and the change� �of� �Emperors� �brought� �changes� �in� �imperial� �policies. Theodosius� �II� �was� �succeeded� �by� �Marcian� �and� �his� �wife Pulcheria, a former nun, who deplored Alexandrine supremacy

in ecclesiastical matters. The two capitals were drawn nearer by the �high-handed �actions �of �Dioscorus �and �Coptic �patriarchs were �described �as �the �"Pharaohs �of �the �Church", �which �was unpalatable� �to� �the� �authority� �of� �Byzantium.� �Thus� �Marcian summoned �Dioscorus �to �answer �for �his �actions �at �Ephesus �II and �to �discuss �his �views �on �Christology �at �Chalcedon �in �451. The Romans quickly mustered a massive army of bishops from the �West �to �join �the �East �European �prelates �at �Chalcedon �in Asia Minor, while Dioscorus was detained by the imperial guard under �a �kind �of �house �arrest, �and �the �Council �summarily condemned� �and� �exiled� �him� �to� �the� �island� �of� �Gangra ��in Paphlagonia, near the southern shores of the Black Sea where he died a few years later.

In� this� way,� the� Copts� lost� their� leadership� in� Christendom. Chalcedon of course was not recognized by them, and from that moment, �we �begin �two �parallel �lines �of �succession �from �St. Mark, �the �one �a �Melkite �obediantiary �to �Byzantium, �and �the other proudly nationalistic of native Coptic stock. Thus initiated

a new wave of merciless persecution to curb Coptic separatism and� �humiliate� �the ��so-called� �Monophysite� �Christians,� �with disastrous results on the eve of the Arab Conquest.

MONASTIC RULE

If the Copts lost their leadership in the fifth century, we must go back �in �time �for �a �more �enduring �contribution �to �Christian civilization.� �Parallel� �to� �the� �Catechetical� �School� �and� �the Oecumenical Movement, a new and more stable institution had evolved �which �must �be �regarded �as �a �purely �Coptic �gift �to Christendom. This is the monastic rule, which was generated by Coptic �piety �and �the �image �of �Christ �and �the �Apostles. �Social and �economic �factors �played �a �role �as �well, �since �persecution forced many to escape to the desert.

From� �its� �humble� �beginnings� �on� �the� �fringe� �of� �the� �desert, monasticism �grew �to �be �a �way �of �life �and �developed �into cenobitic �communities, �which �became �the �wonder �of �Christian antiquity. With its introduction into Europe, it was destined to become the sole custodian of culture and Christian civilization

in �the �Dark �Ages. �However, �like �all �great �institutions, �Coptic monastic �rule �was �perfected �through �a �number �of �long �and evolutionary stages.

The �founding �of �this �way �of �life �is �generally �ascribed �to �St. Anthony (d.336), though organized flights to the wilderness are known to have predated his retirement from the Nile Valley. A certain Frontonius and seventy companions decided to reject the world and espoused a celibate life in the Nitrean desert during the �reign �of �Antonius �Pius �(d.161). �Anthony �himself, �while penetrating� �deeper� �and� �deeper� �into� �the� �Eastern� �Desert, assuming that he was in perfect solitude with the Lord, suddenly discovered St. Paul the Hermit at the age of 113 years already long established in that remote region.

Nevertheless, �if �we �overlook �these �isolated �instances, �we �can safely �consider �that �the �first �definable �phase �in �the �genesis �of

monasticism �was �the �Antonian �way �of �life �based �on �solitude, chastity, poverty, and the principle of torturing the body to save the �soul. �How �did �all �this �begin? �An �illiterate �twenty-year-old Christian at the village of Coma in the district of Heracleopolis

in Middle Egypt, Anthony heard it said one day in church: "If you want to be perfect, go, sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasures in heaven." (Matt. 19:21) A fundamentalist, �he �did �just �that �and �crossed �the �Nile �for �the desert �solitude �where �he �spent �eighty-five �years �of �increasing austerity �and �asceticism. �Though �a �solitary, �he �could �not �hide his �light �of �sanctity �under �a �bushel, �and, �when �his �fame �had spread �so �as �to �reach �the �imperial �court, �Constantine �wrote asking �for �his �blessing. �Even �the �great �Athanasius �spent �two years �with �the �Saint �and �composed �his �biography. �Others followed �this ��athleta �christi� �to �the �Red �Sea �Mountains �and lived �around �his �cave �to �seek �his �spiritual �guidance. �Thus �the second phase in the evolution of the monastic rule arose in what may �be �termed ��collective �eremiticism,� �where �settlements �of solitaries sprang up around the person of a saint, not merely for initiation and orientation, but also as a measure of self-defense

in the arid desert. A disabled anchorite in this distant wilderness could perish for lack of food and water, if he were not observed by �another �neighbourly �solitary.�� Such �settlements �began �to multiply �in �other �parts �of �the �country.�� Besides �Pispir �in �the Eastern Desert, others arose in the Thebaid in Upper Egypt as well as the Nitrean Valley in the desert to the west of the Delta

of the Nile.

Subsequently at Tabennesis, the third stage in the development of cenobitic life was already taking shape under the rule of St. Pachomius22��(d.346). Originally a pagan legionary in the armies

of Constantine and Licinius, he was exposed to the goodness of Christian villagers during the wanderings of his battalion. �They came �to �wash �the �soldiers' �feet �and �broke �bread �with �them

despite �their �harsh �tax �levies.� �Captivated �by �their �kindness �to their oppressors, he decided, on his liquidation from the service,

to become a Christian. �After his baptism, he zealously followed

a �hermit �by �the �name �of �Palaemon �for �training �in �the �art �of sanctity and self-torture.� �An educated man with a background

of� �military� �discipline,� �he� �soon� �perceived� �that� �self-inflicted torture could not be the only way to heaven. �This signalled the inception of one of the greatest cenobitic doctrines of all time. The new Rule of St. Pachomius prescribed communal life in a cenobium �and �repudiated �the �principle �of �self-mortification. Instead,� the� brethren� should� expend� their �potential� in� useful pursuits� �both� �manual� �and� �intellectual� �while� �preserving� �the monastic� �vow� �of� �chastity,� �poverty,� �and� �obedience. The Pachomian �system �reflected �the �personality �of �the �soldier, �the legislator,� �and� �the� �holy� �man.�� Pachomius� �aimed� �at� �the humanization� �of� �his� �monastic� �regime� �without� �losing� �the Christian essence of Antonian or Palaemonian sanctity.� �Every detail of a monk's daily activities was prescribed within the walls of �a �given �monastery.� �Each �monk �had �to �have �a �vocation �to make himself a useful human being to his brotherhood; all must labor �to �earn �their �daily �bread, �without �losing �sight �of �their intellectual advancement; and each must fully participate in the devotional duties of monastic life.

Pachomian �monasteries �multiplied �rapidly �in �their �founder's lifetime, �and �all �were �enriched �through �wise �administration �as well �as �honest �and �selfless �labor. �In �his �famous �work �entitled

"Paradise �of �the �Fathers," �the �fourth-century �Bishop �Palladius states �that �he �found �in �one �monastery �fifteen �tailors, �seven smiths, four carpenters, fifteen fullers, and twelve camel drivers besides unspecified numbers of bakers, cooks, basket and rope makers, �millers, �weavers, �masons, �instructors, �and �copyists �of manuscripts� �-� �all� �living� �in� �complete� �harmony� �and� �perfect discipline �within �a �structure �that �looked �like �a �vast �Roman

fortification.

To �preserve �good �government �in �his �expanding �institutions, Pachomius �established �a �closely �knit �Rule �to �guard �against corruption �and �moral �deterioration. �Three �or �four �monasteries within reach of each other were united in a clan or a stake with

a �president �elected �from �among �their �abbots, �and �all �of �the monks in the clan met periodically to discuss local problems. All clans were organized under a superior general who summoned the �whole �brotherhood �to �a �general �council �twice �each �year: once �in �the �summer �after �the �harvest �for �administrative �and budgetary considerations, and again at Easter for making annual reports as well as for the announcements of new abbots and the transfer of office among the old ones. The last meeting ended with �an �impressive �scene �of �prayer �and �mutual �forgiveness �of sins.

The �fame �of �Pachomian �foundations �spread �far �and �wide, �not only within Egypt but also throughout the world. Monks came

to �live �with �the �fathers �of �the �desert �from �many �nations �- Greeks, Romans, Cappadocians, Libyans, Syrians, Nubians, and Ethiopians,� �to� �mention� �a� �few� �of� �those� �on� �record� �-� �and Pachomius �devised �a �system �of �wards �for �each �nation �within every monastery.

The� �Coptic� �cenobitic� �rule� �became� �the� �wonder� �of� �ancient Christendom. The planting of the Coptic system in Europe and other continents of the Old World was achieved by some of the greatest �divines �of �the �medieval �world. �We �know �that �during one of his exiles in Europe, St. Athanasius spoke about Coptic monasteries �at �the �Roman �Curia �of �Julius �I �(337-52). �But �the real�� apostles�� of�� Coptic monastic�� rule�� were�� celebrated personalities who resided for years in Pachomian establishments

in the Thebaid and sojourned as well in the convents of Kellia, Scetis, and Nitrea in the Western Desert. To quote some of the illustrious names who made extended pilgrimages to the Coptic

fathers of the desert, we must begin with St. Jerome (ca. 342-

420), �who �translated �the �Regula �Sancti �Pachomii �into �Latin, which must have been used by St. Benedict of Nursia (ca. 480-

550) �in �composing �his �famous �Rule. �Others �included �St. �John Chrysostom�� (ca.�� 347-407);�� Rufinus�� (ca.�� 345-410),�� the renowned �ecclesiastical �historian; �St. �Basil �(ca. �330-79), �the Cappadocian author of the great Eastern liturgy used to this day and the founder of a Byzantine monastic order on the model of the Rule of St. Pachoniius; St. John Cassian23��(ca. 360-435), the father �of �monasticism �in �Gaul, �who �is �known �to �have �spent seven years in the Thebaid and Nitrea, Palladius24�(ca. 365-425), Bishop �of �Helenopolis �in �Bithynia, �who �complied �the �lives �of the �desert �fathers �in �"The �Lausiac �History"; �St. �Augen �or Eugenius of Clysma (d. ca. 363), the father of Syrian asceticism; and many more from other parts of Europe in addition to some lesser known persons from Ethiopia, Nubia, and North Africa.

In �reality, �the �Rule �of �St. �Pachomius �continued �to �influence European �monasticism �beyond �the �Middle �Ages. �St. �Benedict failed �to �incorporate �in �his �rule �the �Pachomian �system �of unifying the convents into clans with annual meetings for mutual surveillance �of �their �activities. �It �is �known �that �independent Benedictine houses became very rich in the long run, and that the� �Benedictine� �monks� �decided� �to� �discard� �toil� �and� �live luxuriously on the hired labor of local farmers, thus losing the virtue� �of� �the� �Pachomian� �system� �of� �surveillance� �by� �other members �of �the �brotherhood. �Only �the �Cluniac �reform �of �the tenth century was able to remedy that rising evil by reverting to the �spirit �of �the �Pachomian �rule. �Subsequently �most �newer European �orders �of �religion �observed �the �same �cooperative system. The Carthusians and the Cistercians in the eleventh and twelfth centuries as well as the Franciscans and the Dominicans were founded on the basis of union among their convents under the �authority �of �a �central �government. �Even �the �Jesuits �in �the

sixteenth �century �appear �unwittingly �to �have �fallen �under �the spell of Pachomian dictates. It becomes quite obvious that the contribution of the Copts in the field of monasticism persisted until the modern age.

MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE

A by-product of historic significance to the monastic movement among the Copts was their early missionary endeavour. �All the aforementioned renowned names who spent years of their lives

in the monasteries of Nitrea and the Thebaid must be regarded as �unchartered �ambassadors �and �missionaries �of �that �Coptic Christianity which they had experienced among Coptic religious leaders.� �Meanwhile, the Copts themselves, at least in the first four or five centuries of our era, proved to be extremely active

in the spreading of the faith beyond their frontiers in practically every direction.

It is not inconceivable that Coptic relations with North Africa, notably �with �Cyrenaica �or �the �Pentapolis, �took �place �with �the introduction of Christianity.� �In his visitations from Alexandria, St. �Mark �must �have �been �accompanied �to �the �Pentapolis �by Alexandrine�� helpers.�� Educationally,� the�� natives�� of�� the Pentapolis looked toward Egypt. Synesius of Cyrene (ca. 370-

414), bishop of Ptolemais, received his instruction at Alexandria

in �both �the �Catechetical �School �and �the �Museion, �and �he entertained a great deal of reverence and affection for Hypatia, the �last �of �the �pagan �Neoplatonists, �whose �classes �he �had attended. �Synesius was raised to the episcopate by Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, in 410.� �Since the Council of Nicea in

325,� �Cyrenaica� �had� �been� �recognized� �as� �an� �ecclesiastical province of the See of Alexandria, in accordance with the ruling of the Nicaean Fathers.� �The patriarch of the Coptic Church to

this day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction.� �It is doubtful, however, whether Coptic influence extended �further �west �in �North �Africa, �where �Carthage �and Rome held greater sway.

The area where Egyptian Christianity had its most direct impact was �probably �in �the �upper �valley �of �the �Nile, �by �the �southern gate� �of� �Egypt� �at� �Syene� �(modern� �Aswan).�� The� �ancient Egyptians had known those parts since the eighteenth dynasty, some fifteen hundred years before Christ, and their magnificent temples and monuments are spread all over Nubia. Two factors helped �in �the �steady �flow �of �Christian �missionaries �south �of Syene. �First, �the �persecutions �gave �the �initial �incentive �to Christians �to �flee �from �their �oppressors �to �the �oases �of �the Western� �Desert� �and� �beyond� �the� �first� �cataract� �into� �Nubia. Secondly,� the� rise� of� ascetic� monasticism� furnished� the� new religion �with �pious �emigrants �who �penetrated �the �southern regions as soldiers of Christ. Recent archaeological excavations

in �the �lower �Sudan �prove �that �Christianity �had �struck �root �in those distant regions by the fourth century. In the fifth century, good relations are recorded between the monastic order of the great �St. �Shenute �whose �monasteries �still �stand �at �Suhag �and the Nubian and Baga tribes of the south. At the beginning of the sixth �century, �there �was �a �certain �Bishop �Theodore �of �Philae, apparently �a �Christian �substitute �to �the �Isis �high �priesthood established �on �that �island �from �Roman �times. �In �the �same century, �Justinian �(483-565) �issued �a �command �that �all �the pagan tribes on the periphery of the Byzantine empire should be converted �to �Christianity. �The �imperial �order �accelerated �a process�� already�� taking�� place�� in�� Nubia, though,�� as�� a consequence,� �the� �monophysite� �Copts� �had� �to� �combat� �both paganism and the Chalcedonian profession of faith at the same time. It would appear that the Coptic victory was complete by

559, �and �through �the �sympathy �and �connivance �of �Empress

Theodora, and in defiance of court injunctions, a monophysite bishop, �Longinus, �was �consecrated �for �the �See �of �Napata, capital �of �the �Nubian �kingdom. �The �ancient �temples �were progressively transformed into Christian churches including the temple of Dandur (now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New�� York�� City)�� and�� new�� churches�� were� constructed. Furthermore, monasticism was introduced among the Nubians, who founded numerous monasteries on the edge of the valley. The �most �outstanding �example �is �that �of �St. �Simeon �(Anba Hidra), �which �stood �at �a �short �distance �across �the �Nile �from modern �Aswan. �Though �raided �by �Saladin's �Islamic �armies �in the �year �1172, �its �imposing �ruins �are �still �a �testimony �to architectural, artistic, and spiritual solidity.

Even more romantic than the conversion of the Nubian kingdom

to Christianity in late antiquity was that of the more distant and isolated �kingdom �of �Abyssinia. �According �to �an �apocryphal tradition,� �the� �Ethiopian� �court� �at� �Axum� �had� �long� �been acquainted �with �monotheism. �The �story �of �the �journey �of �the Queen �of �Sheba �to �the �court �of �King �Solomon �in �the �tenth century� �B.C.,� �their� �marriage,� �and� �the� �subsequent� �birth� �of Menelik I of Ethiopia, though probably legendary, has given the Ethiopian monarch the title "Lion of Judah". Menelik's visit to his father in Jerusalem, and his return with the Ark of Covenant, said �to �be �enshrined �in �the �cathedral �of �Axum, �belongs �to �the same �tale. �The �next �contact �with �monotheism �occurred �when the� �eunuch� �in� �the� �service� �of� �"Candace,� �Queen� �of� �the Ethiopians," encountered the Apostle Philip on his return from Jerusalem by way of Gaza. Here, however, the Nubian queen is confused �with �the �Ethiopian. �Historic �evidence �shows �that Ethiopia �remained �pagan �until �the �fourth �century �A. �D. �when the �authentic �evangelisation �of �the �kingdom �took �place. �Two brothers,� �Frumentius� �and� �Aedesius,� �residents� �of� �Tyre� �but originally �from �Alexandria, �boarded �a �trading �ship �going �to

India �and �were �shipwrecked �on �the �Red �Sea �coast �near �the shores� �of� �Erythria.� �They� �were� �picked� �up� �by� �men� �of� �the Ethiopian monarch, probably King Ella Amida, who took them into�� his�� service.�� Aedesius�� became�� his�� cup-bearer,�� and Frumentius his secretary and tutor to the young crown prince, Aeizanas �(Ezana), �to �whom �he �doubtless �gave �a �Christian education. �When �Aeizanas �became �king, �he �and �his �courtiers and retainers were converted, and Christianity was declared the official religion of the state. Afterwards Aedesius was allowed

to �return �to �Tyre, �while �Frumentius �went �to �Alexandria �to convey the news to the Patriarch Athanasius and to plead with him �to �consecrate �a �special �bishop �to �watch �over �the �spiritual welfare�� of�� those� � distant� Christians.�� The�� meeting�� with Athanasius� �was� �presumably� �between� �341� �and� �3463.� �The patriarch appointed Frumentius himself under the name of Anba Salama, �that �is, ��the �father �of �peace�34. �The �new �bishop �of Axum �finally �returned �to �his �see �in �or �before �356, �no �doubt accompanied�� by�� presbyters�� to�� help�� in�� the�� process�� of evangelisation of the kingdom and the establishment of churches

in the country. In 356 the Emperor Constantius, an Arian, wrote

to Aeizanus to withdraw the Orthodox Frumentius, but without avail. �After �the �Council �of �Chalcedon �in �451, �the �Ethiopians adhered to the Coptic profession.

The� �winning� �of� �Ethiopia� �for� �the� �Gospel� �must� �have� �been regarded as one of the most spectacular events of the century, crowning �the �labor �of �the �Copts �in �Africa. �Further �east, �the Copts emerged in the missionary field in Asia, though of course on a more modest scale. It is very difficult to generalize here on the �basis �of �isolated �instances, �but �there �is �no �doubt �that �the Egyptians �moved �freely �to �many �parts �of �Palestine, �Syria, Cappadocia, Caesarea, and to some extent Arabia. Origen, the great theologian, was invited to Bostra to arbitrate in doctrinal differences. �Mar �Augin �of �Clysma �(the �modern �Suez) �was �the

founder of monasticism in Mesopotamia and the Persian empire, making �a �considerable �impact �on �both �Syrian �and �Assyrian Christianity37.� �As� �early� �as� �the� �second� �century� �the� �great Pantaenus �(d. �ca. �190), �who �presided �over �the �Catechetical School �of �Alexandria, �was �chosen �by �Demetrius �I, �the �Coptic patriarch �of �Alexandria �to �preach �the �Gospel �in �India38. �After accomplishing his mission, he visited Arabia Felix (the modern Yemen)�� where he�� must�� have�� continued�� his�� missionary enterprise. �Unfortunately �our �information �on �this �fascinating chapter �is �extremely �limited. �In �the �sixth �century �there �was �a further� �Indian� �adventure� �by� �another� �Alexandrine,� �Cosmas Indicopleustes, �who �later �became �a �monk �in �Sinai �and �left �an account �of �his �travels, �now �in �St. �Catherine's �monastery. �He speaks �of �Christian �communities �with �their �bishops �in �the Persian� �Gulf,� �the� �existence� �of� �Christians� �in� �the� �island� �of Socotra, and the yet more numerous Christians of St. Thomas

in India. He is reputed to be one of the first travellers to Ceylon. The role of the Copts in Europe may be illustrated from the first two exiles of the great Alexandrine patriarch, Athanasius. The first exile began in Constantinople and ended in Trier, where the saint spent parts of 336 and 337, and it is difficult to believe that he did not preach during all that time in his new environment. Most of the second exile, from 339 to 346, was at the Roman curia �as �the �guest �of �Julius �I. �Apart �from �establishing �good relations between Alexandria and Rome, Athanasius carried out some missionary work by introducing into Roman religious life the� �highly� �developed� �monastic� �rule� �of� �the� �Fathers� �of� �the Egyptian �deserts. �This �was �an �important �event �in �view �of �the magnitude of the contributions of the rising monastic orders in the �preservation �of �culture, �and �in �the �progress �of �European civilization as a whole.

In those days the stream of pilgrims who came from the west to visit� �the� �Egyptian� �wilderness� �with� �its� �hermits� �and� �monks

included �many �who �may �well �be �regarded �as �missionaries �of Coptic�� religious�� culture,�� since�� they�� transplanted�� Coptic teachings to their native countries. One of the most eminent of these was John Cassian (ca. 360-435), a native of southern Gaul and the son of rich parents who gave him a good education. He and �an �older �friend �named �Germanus �decided �to �undertake �a pilgrimage �to �the �Holy �Land, �and �in �Bethlehem �they �took monastic �vows. �Then �they �went �to �Egypt, �where �they �spent seven years visiting the solitaries and holy men of the wilderness of Scetis in the Nitrean valley as well as the Thebaid during the fourth �century. �It �was �on �that �occasion �that �John �Cassian collected the material for his two famous works, the Institutes41 and the Conferences. These books deal with the life and habits

of the Egyptian monks as well as their wisdom and institutions, and both were widely read in medieval Europe. St. Benedict of Nursia used them when he codified his rule in the sixth century. After� �spending� �some� �time� �with� �St.� �John� �Chrysostom� �in Constantinople� �on� �his� �return� �journey,� �John� �Cassian� �was ordained priest, probably in Rome, before settling down in the neighborhood of Marseilles, where he has been accredited with the� �introduction� �of� �Egyptian� �monasticism� �into� �Gaul.� �At Marseilles, above the shrine of St. Victor, who was martyred by Emperor Maximian (286-305) in the last Christian persecution, John Cassian founded a monastery and a nunnery on the model of �the �Coenobia, �which �he �had �witnessed �in �Egypt. �In �the catacombs �below �the �present �day �fort �of �St. �Victor �will �be found �numerous �archaeological �remains, �including �sarcophagi with stone carvings and sculptures which portray in animal and plant �motifs �the �direct �influence �of �early �Coptic �art. �On �the island �of �St. �Honorat, �off �the �coast �at �Cannes, �there �is �an �old monastery where the monks explain to visitors that they use the rule of St. Pachomius of the Thebaid.

Wherever� �the� �Roman� �legions� �went,� �they� �apparently� �were

followed �by �Christian �missionaries. �To �Switzerland �a �mission from Thebes, according to local legend or tradition, arrived in the� �year� �285� �with� �the� �Theban� �legion.� �It� �was� �led� �by� �St. Mauritius, who seems to have earned the crown of martyrdom for refusing to sacrifice to the heathen gods. His statue stands today in one of the public squares of Saint-Moritz, and his body was enshrined in what later became the chapel of an abbey of Augustinian� �canons� �at� �Saint� �Maurice� �in� �the� �Valais.� �His companions, �a �legionary �named �Felix, �his �sister �Regula, �and �a third called Exuperantius hid themselves in the dreary wastes of the �land �of �Glarus �and �ultimately �reached �the �Lake �of �Zurich, where �they �baptized �converts �until �they �were �seized �by �the emperor's men and led before Decius, the Roman governor of the �region. �On �refusing �to �sacrifice �to �the �gods, �they �were tortured. Legend says that as they were beheaded a voice from heaven called to them: "Arise, for the angels shall take you to Paradise and set upon your heads the martyr's crown." Thus the bodies �arose, �and, �taking �their �heads �in �their �hands, �walked forty� �ells44�� uphill� �to� �a� �prepared� �ditch,� �where� �they� �sleep underneath what is now the crypt of the Zurich Grossmunster. On �the �spot �of �their �martyrdom �arose �the �Wasserkirche. �The Fraumunster cloister across the Limmat River has eight famous medieval �frescoes �representing �every �stage �of �their �story. �The three �saints �with �heads �in �hand �are �the �subject �of �the �coat �of arms of the city of Zurich. A parallel story with some variation has been recounted about the town of Solothurn, and the name

of St. Victor (the Coptic Boktor) is mentioned as its hero and patron saint.

There is little doubt that the Coptic missionaries reached as far as �the �British �Isles �on �the �fringe �of �medieval �Europe. �Long before �the �coming �of �St. �Augustine �of �Canterbury �in �597, Christianity� �had� �been� �introduced� �among� �the� �Britons.� �The eminent �historian �Stanley �Lane-Poole �says, �"We �do �not �yet

know �how �much �we �in �the �British �Isles �owe �to �these �remote hermits. It is more than probable that to them we are indebted for the first preaching of the Gospel in England, where, till the coming of Augustine, the Egyptian monastic rule prevailed. But more �important �is �the �belief �that �Irish �Christianity, �the �great civilizing �agent �of �the �early �Middle �Ages �among �the �northern nations, was the child of the Egyptian Church. Seven Egyptian monks �are �buried �at �Disert �Uldith �and �there �is �much �in �the ceremonies and architecture of Ireland in the earliest time that reminds one of still earlier Christian remains in Egypt. Everyone knows �that �the �handicraft �of �the �Irish �monks �in �the �ninth �and tenth� �centuries� �far� �excelled� �anything� �that� �could� �be� �found elsewhere in Europe, and if the Byzantine-looking decoration of their� �splendid� �gold� �and� �silver� �work,� �and� �their� �unrivalled illuminations,� �can� �be� �traced� �to� �the� �influence� �of� �Egyptian missionaries, �we �have �more �to �thank �the �Copts �for �than �had been imagined.

Even when we review Coptic heresies and heretics, it behoves us to consider how these ardent sons of the Nile, forbidden to practice �the �beliefs �of �their �sects �within �the �Pax �Romana, crossed the frontiers of the empire to the unknown realms of the barbarians and there freely preached Christianity in accordance with their convictions. Perhaps the most striking feature in the history �of �the �barbarians �as �they �descended �on �the �Roman Empire was the spread of Arianism in their midst. The Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Burgundians, and Lombards must have had their apostles of Arian Christianity. Perhaps the best known is Ulphilas (ca. 311-83), apostle to the Goths, who was probably of Cappadocian birth, who knew the Gothic language as well as Greek, and who translated the Bible into the Gothic tongue for the first time. But Arianism, it must be remembered, was purely an �Alexandrine �creation, �and �its �founder �was �the �heresiarch Arius, a Libyan native of Alexandria. It is only logical to assume

that �the �followers �of �Arius �or �their �disciples �were �responsible for the spread of that heresy from Egypt to the Germanic and barbarian tribes beyond the Danube and the Rhine.

COPTIC MUSIC

On the subject of music, we are constrained to seek the opinion of the specialist. In 1927 the great English musicologist Ernest Newlandsmith of Oxford and London Universities spent several months �in �Egypt �listening �to �the �old �native �chanters �of �the Coptic� �Church� �and� �reducing� �their� �tunes� �to� �notation.� �He managed to compile a number of volumes and declared that the results of his pursuit exceeded his wildest expectations. We can do no better than quote his verdict. "What we understand today as�� Oriental�� music,"�� he�� proclaimed,�� "appears�� simply�� a degradation of what was once a great art. This music, which has been �handed �down �for �untold �centuries �within �the �Coptic Church, should be a bridge between East and West, and place a new idiom at the disposal of the western musicians. It is a lofty, noble, �and �great �art, �especially �in �the �element �of �the �infinite which �is �lacking �today.� �Newlandsmith �is �apparently �of �the opinion �that, �to �quote �his �own �words, �"Western �music �has �its origin �in �ancient �Egypt." �If �we �believe �this �renowned �English musicologist, then we must accept the thesis that Coptic Church music �is �a �bridge �between �the �music �of �ancient �Egypt �and western �music �in �some �way. �It �is �not �inconceivable �that �the Coptic missionaries who crossed over to Europe at the dawn of our era could have carried with them the essence of the native Coptic �chanting. �The �theory �that �there �had �been �interaction between �that �Coptic �vocal �music �and �the �Gregorian �chants, though still debatable, seems to have more than a little historical support. �At �the �present �juncture, �we �can �only �say �with �the

eminent English musicologist that "Such a basis of music opens up �a �vista �quite �undreamt �of �by �the �ordinary �musicians �of �the Western world."

COPTIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Akin to music is the field of the

Coptic�� arts�� which�� has�� been shrouded in a blanket of oblivion for� �many� �centuries.� �In� �recent times, however, the discovery of Coptic �art �has �aroused �a �great deal �of �excitement �and �interest among historians, archaeologists, and modern artists.

There�� is�� hardly�� a�� notable museum �in �the �world �which �has not �devoted �a �special �section �or department to exhibits of Coptic provenance. In originality, depth

of feeling, and unusual vigor, Coptic art has earned for itself a position of independence in Christian antiquity. The motifs

The arm of the Lord on the shoulder of St. Mina in friendship. 6 th century, The Louvre, France

of Coptic art emerged in stonework, painting, woodwork, terra- cotta, �ivories, �and, �above �all �considerations, �in �the �renowned monochrome and polychrome fabrics from Coptic looms.

The �Coptic �textile �industry �has �been �attracting �a �great �deal �of attention in recent years, and specimens of embroidered fabrics of astounding beauty are on display in all major museums. The Coptic� �weavers�� dexterity� �produced� �fantastic� �scenes� �from classical antiquity, which were replaced, from the fourth century

or �a �little �earlier, �by �Christian �themes. �In �the �early �Islamic period, �the �figures �became �increasingly �stylized �but �retained their �special �vigor, �and �geometrical �designs �were �customary. The fabric and carpet collections, both public and private, have had �their �impact �on �the �style �of �a �number �of �great �modern artists. �They �proved �to �be �a �source �of �inspiration �to �some masters� �including� �Matisse,� �Derain,� �and� �Picasso.� �When� �the American �painter �Marsden �Hartley �discovered �Coptic �textile portraiture, he set out to build a collection of his own, and his style was strongly affected by this contact.

In the realm of Coptic ecclesiastical architecture, we can assume that the genesis of the basilical style in the Christian world may be traced to ancient Egypt with Coptic craftsmanship the bridge between the ancient dynastic temple and the modern cathedral. In the beginning, the Copts were in the habit of transforming the ancient temples into Christian churches. Later, when the Copts started to erect their own chapels independently, it was normal for �the �Coptic �architects �to �copy �existing �models �of �their ancestral master builders of antiquity, more especially as these old �structures �appeared �to �fulfill �the �requirements �of �the �new faith.

The �topography �of �the �ancient �Egyptian �temples �comprised three main divisions. First the outer gate flanked with two lofty pylons �led �into �an �open �court �lined �by �two �rows �of �columns with �a �narrow �stone �roofing. �Secondly, �beyond �that �huge quadrangle devoted to general worshippers, was the hypostyle. This �space �was �filled �with �crowded �columns �in �close �rows supporting �a �massive �stone �roof �and �reserved �for �the �royal family �and �the �aristocracy. �The �third �section �at �the �end �of �the temple was a dimly lit chamber, wrapped in great mystery. This was the inner shrine, the sanctum sanctorum, or holy of holies, where �the �deity �resided, �and �which �was �accessible �only �to �the high priest or pharaoh.

The primitive Coptic churches appear to have retained this triple division, �which �may �still �be �witnessed �in �some �of �the �historic chapels of the ancient convents. The innermost area behind the iconostasis� �was� �the� �sanctuary� �(haikal)� �where� �priests� �and deacons �alone �were �admitted �to �officiate �the �mystery �of �the Sacrament. Outside the sanctuary, the central part of the church was reserved for baptized Christians, while a third section at the entrance �was �left �open �for �the �unbaptised �catechumens. �This architectural �arrangement �fits �the �Coptic �offices �to �perfection. Indeed the Coptic liturgy is subdivided into three parts, namely, the �liturgy �of �the �catechumens, �the �liturgy �of �the �faithful, �and the �Anaphora. �Whereas �the �catechumens �were �expected �to depart �after �the �first �stage, �the �screen �was �drawn �after �the second to conceal the mystery of sanctification of the Precious Body and Blood before Holy Communion.

At �an �unknown �date, �the �distinction �between �the �baptized faithful �and �the �unbaptised �catechumens �began �to �disappear with� �the� �elimination� �of� �the� �latter� �through� �the� �spread� �of Christianity, �and �it �became �meaningless �to �retain �the �three transverse� divisions� of� the� church.� Instead� the� perpendicular triple� �division� �of� �nave� �and� �aisles� �was� �substituted� �for� �the transverse �sections �of �bygone �days. �In �this �way, �the �basilical style began to assert itself in Coptic ecclesiastical architecture. St. �Mena's �cathedral, �built �by �Emperor �Arcadius �(395-408) �in the �district �of �Mareotis �west �of �Alexandria, �the �ruins �of �the magnificent �cathedral �at �Ashmunayn �in �Middle �Egypt, �and �the majestic �churches �of �the �Red �and �White �Monasteries �of �St. Shenute at Suhug are fourth and fifth century examples of this imminent change which was gradually adopted by the rest of the Christian world. It would, however, be a mistake to assume that the change was sudden even among the Copts. The irregularity of church forms in Old Cairo proves that the definitive style of the �basilica �must �have �been �an �extended �process. �But �it �is �an

inescapable conclusion that these architectural developments in

Egypt are tied with basilical forms throughout Christendom.

OBLIVION AND REDISCOVERY

One of the most disastrous events in Christian annals came to pass �at �the �Council �of �Chalcedon �in �451. �Its �condemnation �of the �Coptic �patriarch �Dioscorus �I, �and �its �interpretation �of �St. Cyril the Great's formula of the physis or hypostasis of Christ - contrary to the Coptic profession led to the irreparable cleavage of Christendom into two hostile camps; Eastern and Western, or monophysite� �and� �diophysite.� �To� �this� �day,� �Chalcedon� �is acrimoniously remembered by the Coptic natives of Egypt and, for that matter, also by the Jacobite Syrians, the Ethiopians, and the� �Armenians� �who� �followed� �the� �example� �of� �Egypt.� �The immediate �outcome �of �Chalcedon, �however, �was �more �keenly felt �in �Egypt. �The �Byzantine �Emperors �who �aimed �at �unity within the Church as the sole bearer of cohesion in the Empire stopped at nothing to impose that unity by brutal force on the Egyptian �people. �It �was �thus �that �a �new �wave �of �gruesome persecution� �was� �inaugurated� �to� �obliterate� �all� �vestiges� �of separatism� �in� �Egypt.� �For� �effective� �action,� �the� �Emperor combined �the �civil, �military, �and �ecclesiastical �authority �in �the hands of one man, the Prefect Apollinarius, who was governor, army general and patriarch of Alexandria at the same time. This offered� �him� �immense� �powers� �to� �force� �the� �Chalcedonian profession �of �faith �on �the �obstinate �Copts �who �were �adamant against the Greek dictates. In opposition to this military rule of the Church, the natives elected their own national patriarch who was pursued by the legionaries of the Melkite patriarch while he moved �in �secret �from �monastery �to �monastery. �Unbearably excessive taxation, together with the most horrible torture and

humiliation �were �inflicted �upon �the �Egyptians �throughout �the period �from �451 �to �641 �until �the �advent �of �the �Arabs �on �the scene.

The �defeat �of �the �Greeks �and �the �surrender �of �Cyrus, �the �last prefect-patriarch, �to �the �Arab �conquerors �on �Good �Friday, April 6 641, has often been ascribed to Coptic connivance with the �invader �against �their �oppressor. �But �this �is �not �true. �The Copts �merely �took �a �neutral �position �between �the �contestants. They had nothing to lose by changing masters. On the contrary, whereas �the �Byzantines �inflicted �servitude �on �the �Copts �both religiously and politically, the Arabs promised religious freedom

to �all �the �people �of �the �Book �(Ahl �al-Dhimmah), �i.e., �the Christians �and �the �Jews. �In �fact, �after �the �downfall �of �the �last Greek �bastion �of �Alexandria, ��Amr �invited �the �fugitive �Coptic Patriarch Benjamin II out of his concealment and offered him an honorable �safe �conduct �and �the �Melkite �churches �which �were vacated by the Greeks.

In �this �way, �a �new �chapter �opened �for �the �Copts �and �a �new barrier �under �Muslim �rule �terminated �the �relationship �between the Christians of the East and those of the West for more than a thousand years. It is beyond the theme of this paper to detail the story �of �the �Church �under �Muhammadan �dynasties. �The �main point� �here� �is� �that� �the� �Copts� �were� �gradually� �forgotten� �by Western �Christendom �and �lived �in �oblivion �until �the �dawn �of their �rediscovery �by �the �French �Expedition �of �1798-1802. �At that�� time�� the�� Copts�� began�� to�� establish�� a�� measure�� of communication �with �Western �Christendom. �With �the �birth �of democracy and the enfranchisement of all Egyptians, the Copts emerged� �from� �their� �closed� �communities� �and� �opened� �to interaction �with �the �West. �With �little �to �offer �beyond �their ancient� heritage �and� long-established� traditions,� they� became curious objects of interest vis-a-vis the searching Western mind. At �the �same �time, �increasing �confidence �in �age-old �enemies

began �the �process �of �removing �the �barriers �erected �by �the misapprehension� �of� �other� �Christians.� �This� �led� �to� �gradual rapprochement �with �other �Western �creeds �and �sects, �thereby quietly bringing to a close the old Chalcedonian feud which had broken �out �fiercely �in �451 �between �the �monophysite �and �the diophysite �camps �over �"the �one �physis �or �hypostasis �of �God's word incarnate." Perhaps the most significant demonstration of the� �rebirth� �of� �interaction� �between� �East� �and� �West� �became ostensible in the participation of the Copts for the first time in this century with the dispatch of a delegation consisting of one secular and two clerical representatives to the World Council of Churches �convened �at �Evanston, �Illinois, �in �the �summer �of

1954. An amusing incident took place at that meeting when the Copts� �vehemently� �protested� �against� �the� �gracious� �welcome accorded to them by the delegates of Western Christendom as newcomers �to �oecumenicity. �The �Copts �rejected �the �word

"newcomers." They had been participants in a leading position from Nicaea in 325 until Chalcedon and the parting of the ways

in 451. They were thus just resuming their role in oecumenicity after an interregnum of 1,503 years. �Since then, the Copts have been active in that international body, notably in Africa, where their mission is more readily acceptable to the Africans than the European and American missions of colonial days.

At this juncture, it may be fitting to ponder the miracle of the survival �of �this �most �ancient �Christianity. ��The �explanation �of this remarkable phenomenon may be found in a set of causes, some internal and others external.� �Internally, the Copts, in the historicity �of �their �own �Church, �have �developed �a �profound spirituality, watered by the blood of their martyrs and confirmed by �the �racial �consciousness �of �their �remote �ancestry �which extends over millennia, and which is visibly represented by the Church in the Christian era, only the last of many earlier ages. Within �the �walls �of �that �fortress �of �faith, �they �preserved �the

purity of their race against pollution from intermarriage with the ceaseless �waves �of �invasion �from �outside. �The �Church �proved

to �be �the �cementing �ingredient �among �those �sons �of �Ancient Egypt. �Initially a way of worship, Coptism became in the end a way �of �life �and �a �symbol �of �an �old �culture �for �those �isolated Christians in their ancient homeland. �Consequently they became the bearers of a torch which had been ignited in the first century and �which �they �were �determined �to �hand �on �to �posterity �and keep aglow.

On �the �external �level, �we �have �to �admit �that �the �shrinking Coptic community�� of�� the�� Middle�� Ages�� was�� never underestimated �by �its �Muslim �rulers. �The �Copt �not �only �was accepted by the growing Muslim majority but also was revered

as a highly beneficial neighbor and an honest civil servant of the state. �it �is �not �inconceivable, �however, �at �numerous �critical moments in those lonesome centuries, that the depleted Coptic minority �might �have �been �exterminated �by �the �overpowering Muslim� majority.�� But� the� facts� of� history� have� proved� the contrary, and this external factor has indubitably contributed to the realization of the miracle of Coptic survival.

On� �occasions� �in� �modern� �times,� �the� �Copts� �were� �offered integration� �with� �other� �Christian� �powers,� �but� �they� �chose systematically a life of harmony with their Muslim compatriots. Peter the Great (1689-1725) in the eighteenth century offered a merger �with �the �Copts �on �the �condition �that �they �become �a Russian �protectorate.�� The �reigning �patriarch �then �asked �the Russian �delegation �"Who �protects �the �Czar?" �The �reply �was

"God." �The �patriarch �then �answered �that �the �Copts �are �under the �protectorate �of �He �who �protects �the �Emperor. �The �matter was dropped at that. The Episcopalians of Britain tried the same tactic �in �the �days �of �colonialism �with �the �same �response. Nevertheless, �in �recent �years, �with �the �increasing �spirit �of acceptance� �and� �dialogue� �among� �the� �sects� �and� �nations� �of

Christendom, �the �Copts �seem �to �be �advancing �out �of �their prolonged isolation to participate in the widening circle of good faith �among �all �Christians �in �anticipation �of �the �discovery �of their common Father.

CONCLUSION

Like a great and solitary Egyptian temple standing sorrowfully on the edge of the desert and weathering sandstorms over the years until it became submerged by the accretions of time, the ancient Coptic Church led its lonely life unnoticed on the fringe of Christian civilization and was buried in the sands of time and oblivion. Like the same massive temple, too, it has proved itself

to be indestructible though battered by the winds of change. As an organism, its potential vitality though enfeebled by sustained fighting, �has �survived �in �a �latent �form �under �the �weight �of accumulated �rubble. �In �the �last �few �decades, �with �increasing security and liberty from within and support and sympathy from without, its sons have started removing the sands of time from around the edifice, which has shown signs of shining again.

The �miracle �of �the �survival �of �the �Copts �in �a �surging �sea �of Islam, �coming �after �the �black �days �of �Byzantine �misrule �since Chalcedon �in �451 �can �be �explained �only �by �the �depth �of spirituality which the genius of their forebears was able to build during �the �formative �ages �of �Alexandrine �Christianity. �The religious contributions of the early fathers of the Coptic Church have remained unnoticed and sometimes have been ascribed to the Greeks, until the relatively recent rediscovery of the Copts and their heritage. During the first four or five centuries of our era, �Egypt �produced �some �of �the �most �illustrious �names �in Christian� annals.� Men� such� as� Origen,� Athanasius,� Cyril� the Great, �St. �Anthony, �St. �Pachomius, �Shenute �the �Great, �and

many� more� have� left� their� mark� on� the� history� of� Christian civilization� �both� �within� �and� �outside� �Egypt.� �Whereas� �the Catechetical �School �of �Alexandria �was �the �only �center �of Christian �scholarship �in �the �second �and �third �centuries, �the Oecumenical Movement was inaugurated in the fourth and fifth

to �formalize �decisions �on �burning �questions �of �Christology. �In both �fields, �the �role �of �the �Copts �was �supreme, �and �their enduring �contributions �became �an �integral �part �of �Christian civilization �for �all �time. �Perhaps �even �more �staggering �as �a Coptic contribution was the monastic rule in its perfected form. Irrespective of later views on monastic life, the fact remains that monastic �orders �have �been �instrumental �in �the �preservation �of culture �and �civilization �through �the �darkest �ages �of �European history. Furthermore, the Coptic monks of those early centuries were �responsible �for �an �active �missionary �movement �and �the evangelisation of many parts of the old World. In the south, the kingdoms of�� Nubia�� and�� Abyssinia�� were�� converted�� to Christianity �by �these �missionaries, �and �in �the �north, �missions from �Thebes �and �from �Mareotis �followed �in �the �steps �of �the Roman �legions �to �Switzerland, �Gaul, �and �even �Britain �long before� �the� �advent� �of� �St.� �Patrick� �and� �St.� �Augustine� �of Canterbury.

The �impact �of �Coptic �Christianity �may �also �have �penetrated other� �fields� �which� �are� �still� �open� �to� �further� �enquiry.� �The interaction �between �Coptic �vocal �chanting �and �the �immortal Gregorian �chants, �the �basilical �style �in �Coptic �ecclesiastical architecture �and �the �standard �cathedrals �of �the �West, �and �the minor arts of the Copts are all subjects which attract increasing attention �by �specialists �with �a �promise �of �revealing �hidden influences on our civilization.

In �fact, �the �conglomerate �impact �of �these �and �more �items �has awakened �the �searching �minds �of �students �of �divinity �and culture in many countries of the West to explore this forgotten

corner �of �a �most �ancient �Christianity �for �greater �light. �The foundation �of �institutes �of �Coptic �studies �independently �and within �the �framework �of �noted �universities �came �as �a �natural response to this growing pursuit of knowledge. Coptology was established �as �perhaps �the �newest �branch �of �the �humanities, parallel to the other disciplines of Egyptology, Papyrology, and Islamology. Then in 1976, the Coptologists of the world were convened in Cairo by the Egyptian Department of Antiquities, and �there �they �created �the �International �Association �of �Coptic Studies �for �the �coordination �of �the �expanding �activities �in �the exploration of the Coptic heritage. It was also on that occasion that �the �project �of �the �Coptic �Encyclopaedia �was �hailed �as �a much needed and long overdue research tool in an unusual field and �as �a �means �of �diffusing �knowledge �concerning �one �of �the most glorious chapters in the story of Christian civilization.

Aziz S. Atiya was born in an Egyptian village shortly before the turn

of �the �century. �His �education �began �in �Egypt �and �was �continued �in England, where he secured a Ph.D. in 1933 from the University of London and a D.Litt. from the University of Liverpool in 1938. �He �was �awarded the �Charles �Beard �Fellowship �as �well �as �the �Ramsay �Muir �Fellowship �in

1931 �and �the �University �Fellowship �in �1932 �from �the �University �of

Liverpool for outstanding scholarship in Medieval History. In America he

was granted three more doctorates in an honorary capacity: an LL.D. from Brigham Young University (1968) and two doctorates of Humane Letters, from �Baldwin-Wallace �College �(1962), �and �from �the �University �of �Utah

(1968).

Professor Atiya's teaching career began with a Tutorship in the University of London School of Oriental Studies (1934) followed by a Professorship of Medieval� �(including� �Oriental)� �History� �in� �the� �University� �of� �Bonn� �in Germany �(1936-1939). �He �returned �to �Egypt �after �the �outbreak �of �World War� �II,� �and� �became� �First� �History� �Inspector� �for� �Egyptian� �Secondary Education �(1939-39). �He �then �became �Professor �of �Medieval �History �in Cairo �University �from �1940 �and �in �Alexandria �University �from �1945 �to

1954. �He �was �elected �first �Fulblright �scholar �from �Egypt �in �1951 �and �as such acted as Consultant to the Library of Congress as well as lecturing at many American universities.

Professor �Atiya �was �later �invited �back �to �the �United �States �as �Visiting Professor at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor) for the year 1955-56. The following academic year he occupiedanother Visting Professorship of History�� at�� Colombia ��Unviersity�� together�� with�� the�� Henry�� W.�� Luce Professorship� �of� �World� �Christianity� �at� �Union� �Theological� �Seminary. Simultaneously, �he �was �selected �Patten �Lecturer �of �the �year �at �Indiana University. He accepted a similar appointment in the following year (1957-

58) �at �Princeton �University �and �became �a �Fellow �of �the �Institute �for Advanced �Study �in �1958-59. �At �the �end �of �his �term �at �the �Institute, �the University� �of� �Utah� �offered� �him� �a� �tenured ��position� �as� �Professor� �of Languages� �and� �History.� �He� �founded� �its� �Middle� �East� �Center� �and� �its significant Middle East Library, and in 1967 he was named Distinguished Professor of History.

Immediately� �before� �coming� �to� �the� �United� �States,� �Professor� �Atiya established the Institute of Coptic Studies and became its first President in

1954. He also was elected Corresponding Member of the Society of Coptic Archaeology �as �well �as �of �the �UNESCO �International �Committee �for �the Cultural History of Mankind. Among a number of similar memberships of learned academies and societies, he was elected one of four Orientalists in the �world �to �be �an �Honorary �Fellow �of �the �Middle �East �Association �of North America.

Long �recognized �as �a �leading �authority �in �the �fields �of �Medieval �Studies and �the �Near �East �with �a �concentration �on �the �Crusades �and �East-West relations,� �Professor� �Atiya� �has� �published� �widely,� �many� �of� �his� �books

appearing� �in� �translation� �and� �in� �several� �editions.� �Among� �his� �most influential �works �are �The �Crusade �in �the �Later �Middle �Ages �(1938), �A History �of �the �Egyptian �Patriarchs �(1948-59), �Crusade, �Commerce, �and Culture (1962), and A History of Eastern Christianity (1968).

The �greatest �achievement �of �his �life �was �the �compiling �and �editing �the important and monumental Coptic Encyclopedia.

|| Pope Shenouda || Father Matta || Bishop Mattaous || Fr. Tadros Malaty || Bishop Moussa || Bishop Alexander || Habib Gerguis || Bishop Angealos || Metropolitan Bishoy ||

|| The Orthodox Faith (Dogma) || Family and Youth || Sermons || Bible Study || D evotional || Spirituals || Fasts & Feasts || Coptics || Religious Education || Monasticism || Seasons || Missiology || Ethics || Ecumenical Relations || Church Music || Pentecost || Miscellaneous || Saints || Church History || Pope Shenouda || Patrology || Canon Law || Lent || Pastoral Theology || Father Matta || Bibles || Iconography || Liturgics || Orthodox Biblical topics || Orthodox articles || St Chrysostom ||

|| Bible Study || Biblical topics || Bibles || Orthodox Bible Study || Coptic Bible Study || King James Version || New King James Version || Scripture Nuggets || Index of the Parables and Metaphors of Jesus || Index of the Miracles of Jesus || Index of Doctrines || Index of Charts || Index of Maps || Index of Topical Essays || Index of Word Studies || Colored Maps || Index of Biblical names Notes || Old Testament activities for Sunday School kids || New Testament activities for Sunday School kids || Bible Illustrations || Bible short notes

|| Pope Shenouda || Father Matta || Bishop Mattaous || Fr. Tadros Malaty || Bishop Moussa || Bishop Alexander || Habib Gerguis || Bishop Angealos || Metropolitan Bishoy ||

|| Prayer of the First Hour || Third Hour || Sixth Hour || Ninth Hour || Vespers (Eleventh Hour) || Compline (Twelfth Hour) || The First Watch of the midnight prayers || The Second Watch of the midnight prayers || The Third Watch of the midnight prayers || The Prayer of the Veil || Various Prayers from the Agbia || Synaxarium