Curtis,
Edward M. “Old Testament Wisdom: A Model for Faith-Learning Integration,”
Christian Scholars Review 15.3
(1986) 213-27. Cited with permission.
The
"integration of faith and learning" is a notion which in recent years
has become central to
the thinking of many Christian educators, yet the
possibility that we can
find models for such integration in the biblical text
itself has been little
explored. In this essay Edward M. Curtis finds such a
model in the Old
Testament concept of wisdom, and he explores the im-
plications
of the model both for biblical studies and for Christian schol-
arship
generally. Mr. Curtis teaches Old Testament at Talbot Theological
Seminary.
By
Edward M. Curtis
Old Testament
Wisdom:
A Model for
Faith-Learning
Integration
DURING THE PAST few years
regular attention has been
given
by Christian educators to the concept of the integration of faith and learn-
ing. These discussions have produced
a number of helpful suggestions includ-
ing the significant observation of a
Biola colleague, Dr. Bruce Narramore,
that a
basic
barrier to the integration of faith and learning comes from the fact that the
evangelical
community tends to isolate God's special revelation from his general
revelation.1
One element that has been missing from the discussions thus far has
been
the establishment of a biblical basis or model for the process of integration.
It
is the thesis of this paper that the Old Testament concept of wisdom provides
such
a model, and establishes some essential guidelines for practicing integra-
tion.
Biblical Data
An understanding of wisdom in the Old
Testament must take cognizance of
two
kinds of data. First of all it must consider the meaning of the primary
Hebrew
words for wisdom (hakam,
"wise" and hokma,
"wisdom"), and secondly
it
must take into account the themes, content and forms that are found in the
Old
Testament wisdom material.2 The breadth of the data combined with
the
1 Bruce Narramore, "The Isolation of General and Special
Revelation as the Fundamental Barrier to the Integration of Faith and
Learning," (paper presented at the Biola
President's
Luncheon,
October 22, 1984), pp. 1-23.
2 This will include the
books of Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes and certain Psalms (identified
primarily
on the basis of vocabulary, themes and structure). It is generally recognized
today that
wisdom
influence goes far beyond these books and can be found many places in the Old
Testament.
As Murphy ("Theses and Hypotheses," in Israelite Wisdom: Theological and Literary
Essays in Honor
of Samuel Terrien, ed. by John G. Gammie, et al. [
Press,
19771, pp. 39—40) points out, "It is not a question of direct influence of
the sages or of the
wisdom
literature, but rather of an approach to reality which was shared by all
Israelites in
varying
degrees. . . . Such an understanding was not a mode of
213
Christian
Scholar's Review
variety
of ways in which the Hebrew words are used make it difficult to formu-
late
a precise definition of wisdom3 though the general meaning of the
term is
clear.
Some indication of the meaning of wisdom can be discovered by examin-
ing the synonyms that are used with
the words hakam
and hokma.
Among the
common
synonyms are the words nabon,
"perceptive," "skilled";4 bina, "in-
sight,"
"understanding";5 tebuna, "insight," "skill";6 yodea’, "one
who knows"
(either
in the sense of understanding, experience or skill); in addition several
synonyms
suggest the idea of doing what is right or what contributes to success
and
prosperity.
Especially instructive is Prov. 1:2–5
where the wisdom that the book of
Proverbs
offers is described using a number of these synonyms along with
musar,
"training," "discipline"; haskel, "wise
behavior"; mezimma,
"discretion"
(or
according to Toy "the ability to form plans"7); ‘orma,
"shrewdness" and
several
moral nouns like "righteousness," "justice" and
"equity." It appears
that
these synonyms are piled up in an attempt to define the broad concept that
is
wisdom. Von Rad says,
Presumably a comprehensive term, for
which there is no longer any handy
word, can be constructed here for
the reader by the fact that, to a certain
extent, into this prologue a number
of known terms have been inserted so
that by this cumulation
the desired extension of the conceptual range is
achieved. Certainly the individual
terms used are differentiated from each
other; but perhaps not in a way
which can be precisely defined, for they
obviously overlap with each other
too. By the cumulation of many terms
the text seems to aim at something
more comprehensive which could not be
expressed satisfactorily by means of
any one of the terms used.8
The
kinds of words that are used to draw this comprehensive picture of
wisdom
(skill, insight, prudent dealing, ability to form plans, shrewdness,
knowing
how to do, etc.) clearly suggest that the thing that is in view here is
practical
in nature rather than theoretical, and the way the words "wise" and
"wisdom"
are used confirm this conclusion. The words are used of craftsmen
who
made priestly garments according to the instructions given them by Moses
(Ex.
28:3), of the chief artisans of the tabernacle (Ex. 31:3–6), of skilled weavers
(Ex.
35:25–26), of various artisans (Ex. 35:36–36:1), of sailors (Ps. 107:27
["their
wisdom/skill
was swallowed up," i.e., the conditions that confronted them were
so
severe that their unaided skill was not adequate to enable them to successful-
thinking
cultivated exclusively by one class; it was shared at all levels of society
that interpreted
daily
experience." In the present author's opinion this explanation best
accounts for the wisdom emphasis found in many places in the Old Testament.
3
See for example the comments of James Crenshaw, "Prolegomenon" to Studies in
Ancient
Israelite Wisdom,
ed. by James L. Crenshaw, (New York: KTAV, 1976), pp. 3-5.
Among
the examples are Gen. 41:33, 39; Dt. 4:6; 1 Kgs.
3:12; Isa. 5:21 and 29:14; Prov. 17:28
and
18:15. The examples from Isaiah and Proverbs are particularly significant
because the poetic
parallelism
clearly establishes the fact that the two words are virtual synonyms.
5
E.g., Deut. 4:6; Isa. 29:14; Job 28:12, 20, 28, 38:36, 39:17.
6 Ex. 36:1; 1 Kgs. 5:1 (
7 C. H. Toy, Proverbs, International Critical
Commentary, (
1899),
p. 7.
8 Gerhard von Rad, Wisdom in Israel
(York: Abingdon Press, 1972), p. 13.
214
Old
Testament Wisdom: A Model for Faith-Learning Integration
ly navigate the waters] and Ezek.
27:8-9), of military strategists and statesmen
(Isa.
10:13) and of women skilled in lamentation (Jer. 9:17).
The practical nature of wisdom is reflected
in the statement David made to
Solomon
from his death bed as he pointed out to Solomon the problem Joab
would
pose for his survival as king. David said, "Act according to your wisdom,
and
do not let his gray hair go down to Sheol in
peace."9 David was simply
acknowledging
the fact that as long as Joab remained alive he would
cause
problems
for Solomon; David was advising Solomon to ''do whatever was nec-
essary to solve the
problem." The "practical result" orientation of wisdom is
even
more clearly illustrated in the story of Solomon at
Solomon
acknowledged his inability to rule and judge the nation over which he
was
king and he asked God to give him "an understanding heart to judge the
people,
to discern between good and evil." Because he asked for discernment to
understand
justice, God gave him "a wise and discerning heart." The very next
incident
that is reported in 1 Kgs. 3 is the story of the two
women who came to
Solomon
each of whom insisted that the other woman's child was suffocated
during
the night and that the child that remained alive belonged to her. Immedi-
ately after Solomon
was promised a wise and discerning heart, he was con-
fronted
with an extremely complex problem to test whether he had been given
wisdom.
The means by which Solomon identified the mother of the living child
was
reported to the people and "when all
the
king had handed down, they feared the king; for they saw that the wisdom
of
God was in him to administer justice." Thus Solomon's ability to solve
this
problem
convinced the people of his wisdom; the fact that it was such a complex
problem
convinced them that the wisdom must, in a special sense, have come
from
God.
Wisdom can be defined as the ability
to succeed; it is the ability to form a
correct
plan to get a desired result. (The principles that enable a person to
succeed
in a particular endeavor would be called "wisdom" as well.)10
The fact
that
achievement of a desired goal is a prominent aspect of wisdom is suggested
by
the fact that this is a common element in many of the examples mentioned
above:
a craftsman or artisan is wise or skilled in that he is able to follow a plan
given
to him, or one in his mind, and bring the idea into reality; sailors are wise
in
that they can successfully navigate their ships to a desired destination and
return
safely; a political leader is wise in that he can successfully accomplish
what
the demands of his office require. An embryo that cannot find its way out
of
the womb at the proper time is called unwise (Hos. 13:13). God's wisdom
enabled
Him to create the world (Prov. 3:19 and 8:22-31).
The same conclusion is suggested by
the fact that what the Bible calls
9 1 Kgs.
2:6.
10 Von Rad (Old Testament
Theology, v. 1, trans. by D. M. G. Stalker [
and
Row Publishers, 1962], pp. 418,428) has defined wisdom as "practical
knowledge of the laws
of
life and of the world, based on experience." Crenshaw (Prolegomenon, p. 4)
notes a variety of
other
definitions such as "the art of succeeding in human life, both private and
collective"
(Cazelles) or "the ability to cope" (Kenworthy).
215
Christian
Scholar's Review
wisdom
does not always involve a moral dimension. Isa. 40:20 and Jer. 10:6
describe
people who are wise or skilled in making idols, and certain wise men of
Isa.
44:25 and Dan. 2:10–12). This pragmatic (but not always moral) dimension
of
wisdom is evident in certain proverbs like Prov. 17:8 which says, "A bribe
is a
charm
in the sight of its owner; wherever he turns he prospers"—though the
moral
evaluation of the use of bribes is also found in the same chapter in verse 23
which
says, "A wicked man receives a bribe from the bosom to pervert the ways
of
justice." This same non-moral dimension of wisdom is clear in the incident
related
in 2 Sam. 13 where Jonadab is described as
"wise" (though most English
translations
are reluctant to translate hakam as "wise" in this verse); his wisdom
was
used to devise a plan to enable Amnon to have sexual
relations with his half
sister
Tamar. Thus it seems clear that, on one level at least, the primary element
in
wisdom is its ability to accomplish a goal rather than its moral character.11
and
perhaps in the book of Job (the setting of the book seems to be in
the
wise men mentioned in the book presumably were from
of
the Phonecians is mentioned in Ez. 28 and Zech. 9:2;
that of the Persians in
Est.
1:13 and 6:13; that of the Babylonians in Dan. 2:12–13 and 5:7. In some
instances
the wisdom associated with these other nations is viewed negatively
because
of their pride or because the wisdom was associated with divination and
magic,12
but often the wisdom is recognized and is acknowledged as legitimate.
The
wisdom of Solomon is, in fact, compared with the wisdom of the "sons of
the
East" (perhaps
4:29–34
is that the readers would be impressed by the fact that Solomon's
wisdom
surpassed that of the very people who were so well known for their
wisdom.
When the wisdom literature of
that
of
content
and form. Many of the same themes are found (e.g., the problem of the
righteous
sufferer) as well as similar forms (e.g., acrostics, maxims, etc.). In
addition
the content of many of the proverbs are very similar to those found in
the
Bible and while the question of dating is particularly difficult, there is the
11 It would not, however,
be correct to conclude that wisdom has no concern for moral values. In
will
see below, wisdom is embedded in a culture that is dominated by Yahwistic values, and those
moral
values are quite evident in the wisdom material.
12 E.g., Ex. 7:11; Isa.
10:13 and 44:25; Jer. 50:35.
13 The designation of the
Mesopotamian material as wisdom literature comes from the fact that in content
and form it is similar to the biblical material which calls itself wisdom. As
Lambert
(Babylonian Wisdom Literature,
[Oxford: Oxford University Press, 19601, pp. 1—2)
has
pointed out the Babylonians and Assyrians applied the term wisdom (nemequ) to their
{magical
and divinatory traditions. Translations of the Mesopotamian wisdom literature
can be
found
in Larnbert; translations of some of the Egyptian
texts can be found in Marian Lichtheim,
Ancient Egyptian
Literature,
3 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975, 1976, 1980).
216
Old
Testament Wisdom: A Model for Faith-Learning Integration
strong
probability that at least some of these proverbs existed in
and/or
sibility that some of
these proverbs were borrowed by the biblical authors.14
There are a number of passages that
state that wisdom is a gift from God,15
yet
when the content of the biblical wisdom literature (many of the proverbs, for
example)
is considered and compared with the similar material from
us
to be a secondary sense. Many of the proverbs articulate principles that can be
identified
by any insightful person who carefully observes the world around
him,
and it appears that
the
same principles that contribute to a person's success. It does not require
direct
revelation from God (what theologians have traditionally called special
revelation)
to realize the benefit of diligence and the way it contributes to a
person's
success; the same is true of the problems that a bad temper can gener-
ate
for a person or the value of patience or the dangers involved in making rash
judgments
or commitments. It appears that this "secular" level of wisdom
comes
from God in the same sense as is affirmed in Isa. 28:23–29; there the
farmer's
knowledge of how and when to plant and cultivate his crop is said to
come
from God. This understanding, however, does not come as the result of
direct
revelation from God; rather the farmer carefully observes and calculates;
he
tries various techniques in order to improve his agricultural skill. His own
experience
with planting and harvesting, in fact, only supplements and refines
the
traditions that have been recognized by many past generations.
This kind of knowledge is possible for
the farmer, in part, because God has
created
order and regularity in the world. There is a general consensus among
scholars
that wisdom presupposes the existence of "an all-embracing cosmic
order
. . . , which, served as the cohesive force holding together the various
14 Many of the proverbs
from
not
seem to be the leading candidates for borrowing by the biblical authors—though Agur and/or
Lemuel (both of whom
are mentioned in connection with some of the collections of proverbs in
the
biblical book) may have been from the Mesopotamian region. Most scholars
suppose that
there
is a much better possibility that some of the proverbs may have been borrowed
from
There
are striking similarities between Prov. 22:17–23:14 and an Egyptian collection
called the
Teaching
of Amenemope; the question of the direction of the
borrowing is still debated and will
not
be answered as long as there are questions about the date of Amenemope. Given the close
relationship
between Solomon and the Egyptian court (Solomon married a daughter of the
Pharaoh),
the borrowing could have taken place in either direction; studies based on the
language
of
the two collections remain inconclusive. It is clear that there are some
significant theological
differences
between the two collections and some have said that the Egyptian collection
reflects a
"higher"
theology than one normally finds in
sufficiently
objective to answer the question of the direction of borrowing. The fact that
the
book
of Proverbs begins with the words "the proverbs of Solomon" does not
resolve the question
either,
since at least some of the sections could have resulted from his choice of the
proverbs rather than his authorship of the statements.
15 E.g., Ex. 28:3,
31:3,6, 35:31, 35:35–36:2 (all referring to the skill that God gave to
certain
craftsmen); 1 Kgs. 3:4–15 (referring to the wisdom to
judge and rule that God gave to
Solomon);
1 Kgs 5:9–14 (
and
literary endeavors); Ps. 51:8 (
217
Christian
Scholar's Review
components
of created order in a well-integrated, harmonious whole."16
recognized,
of course, that this order was created and maintained by Yahweh,
and
this order clearly provides the basis for systematic and repeatable observa-
tions about the
natural world. As Hermisson has noted,
the
conviction that the regularities within the human and the historical-social
realm
are not in principle different from the ones within the realm of nonhuman
phenomena,"17
and thus no radical distinction was made between "nature
wisdom"
and "culture wisdom." Biblical wisdom literature is noted for its
lack
of
explicitly theological themes; there is little mention of redemption, the cove-
nant, God's
deliverance of His people, etc. The dominant theme in the wisdom
literature
seems to be the theme of creation; this appears to be the case because
creation
constitutes a fundamental prerequisite for successfully perceiving truth
by
studying the world and the people in it.
Man is able to comprehend God's
creation because he is made in the image
of
God. The literary context of Genesis 1 makes it clear that the creation of man
is
the
climax of God's creative activity18 and man alone is said to be made
in the
image
of God (or perhaps better "as the image of God"). It is clear that
the image
of
God gives to man a pre-eminent position in the created order and sets him
apart
from everything else that God has made. Man's exercise of dominion over
the
rest of creation appears to be the consequence of his creation in the image of
God
and in all probability equips man for that task. It seems clear that man has
been
given faculties for comprehending his world as a part of his creation in
God's
image in order, among other things, to exercise dominion over the rest of
creation
as is described in both Gen. 1:26–28 and Ps. 8.
Level-One Wisdom
God's creation of the world with its
order and regularity and God's creation
of
man in his image are essential prerequisites for perceiving the wisdom that we
are
suggesting should be identified as level-one wisdom. These ideas also provide
a
vital interface between the divine/human/created world. On the one hand, the
image
of God makes man able to relate to God (as the sonship
analogy in Gen. 5
makes
clear); on the other hand, it makes man able to comprehend the world
and
its order and this is an essential element in man's exercising dominion over
the
rest of creation.
16 Leo G. Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, Society of Biblical
Literature Dissertation Series, 30
(Missoula,
Montana: Scholar's Press, 1977), p. 135. Waltke
("The Book of Proverbs and Ancient
Wisdom
Literature," Bibliotheca Sacra,
136 (1979), p. 135) also notes that the "notion of a fixed,
eternal
righteous order does compare favorably with the biblical meaning of 'wisdom.' .
. .
[wisdom]
is an eternal order existing for man's good. . . . Wisdom is God's fixed order
for life, an
order
opposed by chaos and death." Note the similar statement of Hermisson, "Observations on
the
Creation Theology in Wisdom," in Israelite
Wisdom: Samuel Terrien Festschrift, p. 44.
17 Hermisson,
p. 44.
18 For a detailed study
of the image of God see the author's 1984
Parallels,"
available through University Microfilms. The final chapter of that work
discusses the
meaning
and significance of the statements in Genesis.
218
Old
Testament Wisdom: A Model for Faith-Learning Integration
It appears legitimate—one might even
say necessary—to conclude that
there
is a level of wisdom that comes out of the crucible of human experience; it
can
be recognized by man, even after the fall, as he carefully and perceptively
studies
his world and the people in, it. He is able to identify many of the princi-
ples by which the
natural world operates; he is able to identify many things that
contribute
to success in living as well as many things that will prevent success. It
appears
that this is the way many of the principles in the biblical wisdom
literature
had their origin,19 and this probably accounts for the parallels in
con-
tent
between the biblical wisdom literature and that of other nations.20
This may
also
account for some of the common moral values that
neighbors
and for some of the ideas about god that are expressed in certain
pagan
hymns and which are similar to ideas applied to Yahweh in biblical
texts.21
19 Some have described
the different mechanism of revelation suggested here as
"horizontal
revelation" in contrast with the "vertical revelation" that
appears to be the norm for
the
law and the prophets. Ronald Allen (Praise!
A Matter of Life and Breath, [
Nelson
Publishers, 1978], pp. 92–97) recognizes the same differences in the mechanics
of
inspiration
that we are suggesting. He suggests that the prophets are characterized by God
communicating
new knowledge that man could not otherwise know through his messengers;
many
of the psalms are characterized, not by new revelation, but rather by the
believer's response
to
earlier revelation; much of the wisdom material is characterized by the sage's
reflection on the
way
God's world works.
20 In pointing out the
similarities and parallels between the biblical wisdom material and that of
other ancient Near Eastern cultures and seeking to account for those
similarities, it is important to recognize that there are fundamental
differences as well. These differences are most
apparent
in the realm of moral values and theology, but the Yahwistic
perspective produced by
the
covenant caused many of the "non-theological" principles (though this
secular/theological
distinction
was not recognized in
"What
is surprising ... is that many of the most elementary experiences appeared
quite differently
to
[
understanding"
(Wisdom, p. 5).
21 This touches on a
number of theological issues that continue to be debated vigorously,
and
obviously the questions cannot be resolved in one footnote. The principle that
we have
applied
to explain the origin of what we are calling "secular" wisdom or
level one wisdom—and
which
seems to be affirmed by Scripture—could apply just as well to other areas. This
would
suggest
that man created in the image of God and living in the presence of God's
general
revelation
can perceive certain moral truths. This is consistent with a number of Old
Testament
texts
that recognize the moral responsibility of nations other than
seems
to be consistent with Rom. 1-2 as well. This would explain the fact that
various laws that
are
contained in the covenant are known from
Mosaic
covenant. As many have noted, the significant element in the covenant is not
the
originality!
of the laws; rather it lies in the fact that Yahweh affirmed the truth of them
in His
revelation
to Moses. In the same way, it seems plausible that man is capable of discerning
certain
truth
about God as he is confronted by God's general revelation in the world. Many
are reluctant to admit that unredeemed man is capable of discerning any moral
or spiritual truth because they
feel
that this undermine the doctrine of the total depravity of man. It should be
pointed out that
Calvin
recognized the fact that unredeemed man perceives truth in these areas and he
attributed
this
to the revealing activity of God rather than to the ability of man. These
issues are discussed at
length
by Berkouwer (General
Revelation [
the Word of God,
Festschrift in honor of Steven Barabas, (Chicago:
Moody Press, 1976), pp. 11–
219
Christian
Scholar's Review
What we are calling level-one biblical
wisdom generally reflects a different
perspective
than other biblical literature, though as Waltke has clearly
demon-
strated there is
theological consistency between the wisdom material and the
other
biblical material.22 The wisdom material reflects man's struggle to
perceive
truth
as he looks at life in the world God has created. Most of the proverbs
involve
observations about life and what contributes to success in living and
what
does not. Job describes his own struggle to square the reality of innocent
suffering
with the wisdom theology that he and his friends share. The book of
Ecclesiastes
involves Qoheleth's search for order and for
something in life that is
not
vanity. The material is not characterized by theophanies
(the significance of
the
theophany in the Book of Job will be noted later); it
is not characterized by
dramatic
revelations or by "Thus saith the LORD."
This material recognizes that
because
God created the world and maintains it there is consistent order in the
world.
An awareness of the order God has built into the world enables a person
to
live in harmony with those principles and contributes to his success, and
much
of the wisdom material reflects man's search for that order.23
We have suggested that there is in the
Old Testament a kind of wisdom that
has
its origins in human experience and observations about life in the world, and
we
have suggested that there are many similarities between this wisdom and the
wisdom
that
the
legitimacy of this wisdom; it is important to recognize as well that the Bible
sees
clear limits for this kind of wisdom. The inability of Job and his friends to
explain
why an innocent man would suffer is clearly expressed in Job 28, and his
problem
is finally resolved through a theophany. The
conversation with Yah-
weh did not answer Job's questions;
rather it emphasized the limited capacity of
man
to penetrate into such mysteries. Qoheleth's search
for the key to life, for
some
profit that death cannot eradicate, demonstrates the limits of wisdom as
well.
He says in Eccl. 8:17, "I saw every work of God, I concluded that man
cannot
discover the work which has been done under the sun. Even though man
should
seek laboriously, he will not discover; and though the wise man should
say,
'I know,' he cannot discover." The limit to the wisdom that can be dis-
cerned by man's
observation of his world is clear from Isa. 19:11-12 where the
30.
The question of natural law is discussed by John Barton, "Natural Law and
Poetic Justice in
the
Old Testament," Journal of
Theological Studies 30 (1979), 1–14 and by Alan F. Johnson, "Is
There
a Biblical Warrant for Natural Law Theories?" Journal of the Evangelical Theological
Society, 25 (1982),
185–201.
22 Bruce Waltke, "The Book of Proverbs and Old Testament
Theology," Bibliotheca
Sacra, 136 (1979),
302-17. See also the article by Waltke mentioned
above in n. 16.
23 In addition to the
discussions of Crenshaw and Waltke see the discussion
of H. J.
Hermisson,"Creation Theology in
Wisdom," in Israelite Wisdom: Samuel
Terrien Festschrift, 43-
57.
It is possible that the desire to discover the patterns and order that God has
created into the
universe
is programmed into mankind. This idea is perhaps expressed in Eccl. 3:11 in the
statement
that God has put 'olam
in man's heart. The meaning of the word olam is a key for
interpreting
the verse, and a number of different meanings have been proposed. A number of
commentators,
on the basis of the context and use of the word elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible,
would
translate the word "eternity" and would basically agree with Kaiser's
conclusion that man
220
Old
Testament Wisdom: A Model for Faith-Learning Integration
inability
of Pharaoh's advisors to discern the plans of Yahweh is declared. Man's
limited
capacity for wisdom is also evident from the fact that God's truth some-
times
turns out to be the opposite of what appears correct to man (Isa. 8:11–15;
or
the statements of Proverbs that giving money to the poor actually contributes
to
a person's prosperity).
Man's wisdom is limited both because
he is finite and because he is fallen.
As
a result "There is a way that seems right to a man, but its end is the way
of
death"
(Prov. 14:12). The result of following man's perception of what is right is
described
in the Book of Judges: "Every man did what was right in his own
eyes,"
and this led to gross immorality and political disaster (e.g., the story of
the
Levite and his concubine in Ju. 19–21), as well as to
religious practices that
were
gross distortions of God's intention (e.g., the story of Micah in Ju. 17–18).
The
historical context in which these incidents are placed makes it clear that the
actions
of the people in doing what was right in their own eyes were the exact
opposite
of the obedience to God's covenant revealed at Sinai which should
have
characterized God's chosen people.
Level-Two Wisdom
The limits imposed on man's
understanding by his finiteness and his fallen-
ness
suggest that man's perception of reality and his identification of the princi-
ples of order God
has created in the world will include both truth and error. This
means
that there are many things that man can know only if God reveals them to
him.
Scripture makes it clear that God has given such a revelation to man, and
the
Bible comes to us as the definitive statement of that special revelation. In
that
special
revelation God has communicated to man much about Himself, His
redemptive
activity on man's behalf, His moral truth, and many of His purposes
and
desires for mankind and history. Clearly this is wisdom that has come to us
from
God and we would identify this special revelation as level-two wisdom.
The special revelation of Scripture
contains numerous examples of what
appears
to be level-one wisdom, and this suggests several important conclu-
sions. First of all,
it suggests something about the mechanics of inspiration of
this
material; it appears that a major element in the Holy Spirit's work here
involved
filtering out the mixed material of empirical observations aboutlife
so
that
what comes to us in the biblical wisdom literature is both true and appropri-
ate
for God's intended purposes. As
a
part of both general and special revelation. He says, "the factors held in
common
between Near Eastern cultures, yet displayed in a 'Thus saith
the Lord'
context
in Scripture, are to be understood as a part of general revelation, which
are
also special in that God chose to include their provisions in His specific
revelation
to the Israelites."24
has
"a deep-seated desire, a compulsive drive, because man is made in the
image of God to
appreciate
the beauty of creation (on an aesthetic level); to know the character,
composition,
and meaning of the world (on an academic and philosophical level); and to
discern its purpose and destiny (on a theological level) . . . . Man has an
inborn inquisitiveness and
capacity
to learn how everything in his experience can be integrated to make a
whole" (Kaiser, Ecclesiastes: Total
Life, [Chicago: Moody Press, 1979], p. 66).
24
221
Christian
Scholar's Review
A second conclusion is also suggested
by this situation; the inclusion of
these
level-one principles in Scripture clearly validates their truth. As
suggests,
truth revealed through general revelation is just as true as truth re-
vealed through special
revelation. He says, "A Babylonian or Egyptian idea, if
borrowed
and inscripturated under the divine inspiration of the
Lord who cre-
ated all men, is
just as true as if it had fallen from the crystal air of
had
been inscribed on its red rock by the finger of God."25 It must
be pointed
out,
however, that the only way that we know with absolute certainty that a
principle
is true is to have it validated by special revelation and thus we will
always
have to attach a different degree of certainty to principles learned from
general
revelation than to those communicated to us through special revelation.
Different
levels of certainty, will, of course, be connected with different
kinds
of observations in the world. Some principles such as laws of nature
identified
in the physical sciences have a fairly high degree of certainty attached
to
them because of the kinds and amounts of empirical data on which they rest;
mathematical
and theoretical models provide additional confirmation. In con-
trast, studies in the
social sciences often involve a large number of variables
many
of which cannot even be identified much less controlled. In addition to the
perspective
of "absolute certainty," a category that we might call
"pragmatic
certainty"
is much more at home in level-one wisdom. Certain observations and
models
are "validated" because they work, and pragmatically that is the only
validation
that they require.26
The validation of the truth of man's
observations about life and his world by
their
inclusion in the special revelation of Scripture does affirm the significance
of
man's abilities and his capacity to discern truth by studying his world and
society.
Goldingay says,
Wisdom reminds us that man's creatureliness is an abiding feature of him, and one of
positive significance. Man is not just
"lost," and the world is not just the sphere of Satan's
activity.
Man in the world is given life by God and called to live in accordance with his
nature as God's creature, with the nature of
the world as God's creation, and with the
nature of his experience as God's gift. The
wisdom tradition assumes that, living in and
confronted by God's world, man as man is in
the presence of and confronted by God
himself. Inanimate nature, worldly
experience, human reason, all reveal something of the
truth of God in regard to man and the world.27
possibility
that may account for some of the parallels. We would explain parallels such as
the
flood
story by suggesting that the accounts go back to the event itself. The biblical
account is, as
the
result of inspiration, accurate in all its details and even includes an
interpretive element to tell
us
what the significance of the event was. The accounts from other cultures have
been modified
and
distorted in the course of history. It is possible that some of the common
moral values may be explained in the same way. Patterson ("The Widow, the
Orphan, and the Poor in the Old
Testament
and the Extra-Biblical Literature," Bibliotheca
Sacra, 130[1973],223-34) has
suggested
that the similar values concerning the protection of the widow and orphan that
are
found
throughout the ancient
transmitted
from generation to generation and which continued to be recognized as
authoritative.
25 Ibid., p. 17.
26 If one wants to adjust
his carburetor or find oil or build a bridge he is interested in
whether
a technique works, not in whether it can be validated in terms of absolute
certainty. It
would
appear that various therapeutic techniques (either physical or psychological)
that do not
222
Old
Testament Wisdom: A Model for Faith-Learning Integration
The complementary relationship that
exists between the wisdom literature
and
the rest of Scripture also affirms the significance of level-one wisdom. The
topics
that are the major focus of attention in the wisdom literature are generally
non-theological
in nature. Rather, they come out of the daily experience of man,
and
for the most part deal with areas of life that are not emphasized in the law
and
the prophets. Kidner says, "there are details of
character small enough to
escape
the mesh of the law and the broadsides of the prophets, and yet decisive
in
personal dealings. Proverbs moves in this realm, asking what a person is like
to
live with, or to employ."28 Murphy says, "there were other
areas of life not
really
touched by the decalogue: personal diligence,
self-control, attitudes to-
ward
the poor, pride, trust in one's judgment, etc. In short the development of
responsible
character, over and above the goals of the decalogue,
form the heart
of
wisdom teaching."29 The model found in Scripture, with the
level-one
wisdom
discernible by man in God's image affirmed by its inclusion in the level-
two
wisdom of Scripture, is perhaps intended as both an encouragement and an
exhortation
to the cultivation of level-one wisdom in order to gain understand-
ing in many areas not directly
addressed in Scripture.
One additional conclusion is suggested
by the circumstance that we have
observed
in the Old Testament wisdom literature. It is clear that the level-one
wisdom
that we have identified is set in a Yahwistic context
by its inclusion in
Scripture.
Some scholars have argued that this reflects the end of a process by
which
this originally secular wisdom was Yahweh-ized and
brought into the
covenant
community.30 Rather, it appears that these empirical observations
found
in Scripture came in fact out of the covenant community and were an
essential
element in it from the beginning. As Murphy has argued these obser-
vations were made
"as worshipers of Yahweh, not merely as ancient Near
Eastern
tribes. The wisdom lessons and ideals were an essential expression of
their
understanding of the Lord and of life."31 This results in the
biblical wisdom
literature
being superscribed by Yahwistic
morality.32 The pragmatic element in
wisdom
that focuses on what works and 'what contributes to success is con-
strained
and limited by a concern for what is right. As Kidner
has noted,
"Proverbs
is concerned to point out that what is right and what pays may travel
long
distances together; but it leaves us in no doubt which we are to follow when
their
paths diverge."33
violate
principles or norms of Scripture would fall into this category; many principles
applied in
the
physical sciences, engineering, business, etc., would belong in this category
as well. Often the
only
validation that is either possible or that is needed is the pragmatic
validation of whether it Works.
27 John Goldingay, "The 'Salvation History' Perspective and
the 'Wisdom' Perspective within the Context of Biblical Theology," The Evangelical Quarterly, 51 (1979):
202.
28 Derek Kidner, Proverbs,
Tyndale Old Testament Commentary, (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity
Press, 1964), p. 13.
29 Roland Murphy,
"Wisdom and Yahwism," in No Famine in the
Land: Studies in Honor of John L. McKenzie (Claremont: Institute for Antiquity
and Christianity, 1975), p. 119.
30 E.g. MdKane, Proverbs,
Old Testament Library (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1970) and many others.
31 Murphy, "Wisdom
and Yahwism," p. 119. See also the articles by Waltke (see notes 16
223
Christian
Scholar's Review
The context in which wisdom is set in
Scripture suggests some essential
parameters
within which the effective search for truth in general revelation must
take
place. The fundamental condition for acquiring wisdom is given in Prov.
1:7:
"The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom
and
instruction," and this essential principle occurs a number of times
through-
out
the wisdom literature, usually at crucial points in those texts (e.g., Job
28:28).
The
fear of the LORD is essentially an attitude; it involves recognizing who God
is
and who we are and then living in the light of that understanding. (It is
important
to note that the Old Testament—and the New Testament too, for that
matter—does
not recognize a dichotomy between knowing and doing; knowl-
edge
that is not acted on is not wisdom, rather, it is folly.) The fear of the LORD
is
a worshipping submission to the God of the covenant who revealed Himself to
ning in the sense
either of the first principle or the most important principle. As
Kidner suggests, the
word has both meanings here; it is "the first and control-
ling
principle rather than a stage one leaves behind."34
This means that the search for truth
in general revelation must take place
under
the awareness of who God is as creator and sustainer of all things; it must
be
done in full submission to the LORD, and this must include recognizing the
instruction
of God in Scripture as the decisive word on any matter. Thus even as
wisdom
provides a firm basis for research and inquiry into a wide variety of
areas,
it also provides clear parameters for the pursuit of truth: this pursuit
must—if
it is to be successful—be carried out in the fear of the LORD and in
submission
to His authoritative voice in Scripture. As von Rad
has observed,
The search for knowledge can go wrong
because of one single mistake at the beginning.
One becomes competent and expert as far as
the orders in life are concerned only if one
begins from knowledge about God. . . .
about God is the only thing that puts a man
into a right relationship with the objects of his
perception.35
Thus our study must involve the
integration of faith and learning, and our
learning
must always bow in humility before the authoritative voice of God in
Scripture.
This will, of course, never solve all the problems encountered in
integration
since what one believer perceives as a definitive statement of Scrip-
ture about a
particular question may be understood quite differently by another
equally
committed believer. This results, in part, from the fact that level-one
and
22 above) and the discussion of Kidner, Proverbs, pp. 31-35.
32 As was noted above,
the Egyptian and Mesopotamian wisdom material reflects an
interest
in what is right— though often it seems to be only a pragmatic interest. The
unique
dimension
in biblical wisdom lies in the fact that it comes out of the covenant community
and
reflects
the revealed morality of Scripture as Kidner (ibid.)
has pointed out. It should be noted,
however,
that these moral principles (apart from sections like Prov. 1-9) are more
implicit than
explicit.
33 Kidner,
p. 31.
34 Kidner,
p. 59.
35 Von Rad, Wisdom, p.
67. The New Testament also affirms that the effective search for truth must
begin with submission to God's truth. Unbelievers are characterized by their
refusal to acknowledge God (Rom. 1:28), and their minds are said to be defiled
(Titus 1:15). It is clear that
224
Old
Testament Wisdom: A Model for Faith-Learning Integration
wisdom
does—and should—influence our interpretation of the biblical data.
One
need only think of the examples of Galileo, Copernicus or Columbus to
realize
that there are instances where the dominant interpretation of a passage
or
the prevailing theological opinion about some matter has required revision in
the
light of accumulating evidence from non-biblical sources. Interpreters will
sometimes
disagree as to when and how level-one wisdom should influence
interpretation
of a particular text. This will produce differences of opinion re-
garding the meaning of
that text, and it illustrates the careful balance that is
essential
for effective integration of faith and learning. The biblical data must be
studied
in full awareness of level-one wisdom, and, at the same time, the inter-
preter must stand
fully and submissively under the authoritative and correcting
voice
of Scripture. This makes it clear that effective integration can, at times, be
as
much an art as it is a science.
This does, however, establish the
attitude that is the sine qua non of
effective
integration;
it also makes it clear that the Christian scholar must make as diligent
an
effort to determine the teaching of Scripture on a topic as he does in
acquiring
and
evaluating data from his observations of the world and society. He must
also
acquire the kind of intimate familiarity with the truth of God that will enable
him
to evaluate data pertaining to areas apparently not touched by biblical
revelation
in a way that is fully consistent with biblical norms and values.
One example taken from the Old Testament
wisdom literature suggests that
the
possibilities for discovery for the believer who works in the fear of the LORD
may
be very significant indeed. The Book of Job involves the attempt of Job and
his
friends to explain the reason for his suffering. All the men agree in the
beginning
with the wisdom doctrine of retribution which says that a man is
blessed
in proportion to his righteousness and punished in proportion to his
wickedness
(an idea that seems to naturally follow from the idea that God is just
and
sovereign over the affairs of men). This idea causes the friends to insist that
Job
must be wicked for this suffering to have come upon him. Job knows that he
is
innocent of sins of such magnitude as to account for his suffering, and for him
the
possibilities are much more disconcerting than for the friends. The fact that
he
is innocent and nevertheless is suffering suggests the conclusion that God is
unjust.
The friends' recognition of the implications
"if Job's suffering were innocent
caused
them to retreat with increasing insistence into the security of declaring
Job
a sinner. Part of Job's struggle came from the theological dilemma that was
created
by his awareness that he was innocent: he was unable to accept the
obvious
conclusion and yet he was unaware of how the problem could be
resolved.
As Job struggled with "creative alternatives" to the obvious
conclusion
this
attitude affects their ability to perceive truth, especially in the moral and
spiritual realms
(e.g.,
Eph. 4:17-18; 2 Cor. 3:1). Regeneration brings about a change in the believer's
perception in these areas, in part because the believer's attitude toward the
instruction of God is changed. He now accepts God's declaration of truth, and
thus his understanding of the world and society will
be
decisively impacted. He understands moral and spiritual reality in a way not
possible for the
unbeliever
who remains hostile to God's truth. This understanding will determine how the
believer
interprets the data he accumulates as he studies his world and society.
225
Christian
Scholar's Review
that
God is unjust, he suggested the possibility that perhaps his vindication
would
come after death (e.g., Job 14:7–22 or 19:23–29); as Job demanded the
right
to argue his case before God himself, he; realized the futility of such an
encounter
and perceived that a mediator or advocate would be needed in such a
situation
(e.g., 16:18–22). Job is never told why he suffered (he did not have the
prologue),
and the "answer" that Job is finally given is not a cognitive answer.
The
theophany did not provide any information that
contributed to Job's under-
standing
of why he suffered; rather the intimate knowledge of God that came
through
the theophany caused the questions of why he suffered
• and of how
God's
treatment of him could be consistent with what Job knew of God's char-
acter to lose their
significance. Job's ideas of vindication after death or of the
possibility
of resurrection do not contribute to a solution to the theological
problems
raised in the book (though some of them are resolved for the reader by
the
prologue) and they do not contribute in any way to the resolution of Job's
own
questions. The ideas are raised as possibilities and then they are dropped
with
neither rejection nor confirmation. It is only in the light of subsequent
revelation
that the ideas suggested by Job are validated as true and the ideas are
integrated
into the solution to the problem of injustice and suffering for the
Christian.
Level-Three
Wisdom
The book of Job also illustrates what we
would identify, as level-three wisdom.
Chapter
28 represents a lull in the arguments of Job and his''friends.
It is evident
that
they are no closer to an answer to their questions than they were at the
beginning
of their discussions. Chapter 28 recognizes that wisdom is what is
needed
to resolve the questions. Man is capable of many impressive accomplish-
ments, but the kind
of wisdom that would solve this dilemma requires wisdom
that
God alone can provide. It is clear that God does not choose to reveal the
answer
to many problems like this, and Job 28:28 indicates that man's wisdom in
the
presence of the unanswerable questions of life is "to fear God and turn
from
evil."
There is wisdom that belongs to God alone which He does not choose to
reveal
to man; man's wisdom—that which contributes to his success—is to
respond
in obedience to that which God has revealed. Even in the limit that is
imposed
on man by level-three wisdom, the practical nature of wisdom is evi-
dent.
The wisdom that man is given is not meant to allow him to discover the
plan
of God in all its details; rather it instructs man how to respond to the varied
circumstances
of life in a way that will contribute to his success as God defines
prosperity.
Summary and
Conclusions
We have suggested that the Old Testament
recognizes three different kinds
of
wisdom. The first kind is discernible to man made in the image of God as he
lives
in the world God has created and as a part of human society. This wisdom
is
affirmed as both possible and significant and provides the basis for research
and
the quest for knowledge and understanding of man and his world; these
endeavors
play an important role in the exercise of dominion over the world.
Scripture
also recognizes limits on what man can know in this way; the limits are
226
Old
Testament Wisdom: A Model for Faith-Learning Integration
imposed
both by man's finiteness and his fallenness. The void
imposed by these
limits
is partially filled through the special revelation of God (level-two wisdom),
which
informs man about God and tells man what he needs to know to have
right
standing with God and to be equipped for effective ministry. A third level
of
wisdom is recognized as belonging to God alone and is completely beyond the
ability
of man to penetrate. The presence of level one wisdom embedded in the
level
two wisdom of Scripture provides a model for the effective search for truth
in
God's general revelation; it must be done in the fear of the LORD, and must
be
done in submission to God's truth in Scripture. The possibilities for discovery
are
affirmed by the fact that in at least one case the creative struggle of a believer
seems
to have produced an insight that contributed to the revelation of truth
concerning
ultimate justice after death, the resurrection of the dead and the
need
for an advocate to plead one's case before God.
Finally, several implications for the
Christian scholarly community are sug-
gested by these ideas:
I.
Effective integration of faith and learning requires each scholar to bow before
the
truth of Scripture and to accept its statements as decisive in his pursuit of
truth.
The Christian scholar must search the Scripture as diligently as he works
at
acquiring data from other sources. He must work at assimilating the truth of
Scripture
to such a degree that he is able to formulate theories and models that
are
fully consistent with biblical norms.
II.
The Bible affirms the significance of level-one wisdom and confirms that truth
can
be perceived through man's observation of his world and society. While the
scholar
must be careful not to superimpose a non-biblical pre-suppositional grid
onto
Scripture so as to distort proper exegesis, he must at the same time avoid
interpreting
and applying the Bible in isolation from the insights of level-one
wisdom.
This suggests the necessity for a well-rounded and growing awareness
of
level-one wisdom on the part of the biblical and theological faculty.
III.
The Old Testament idea of wisdom clearly places the burden for integration
of
faith and learning on each individual scholar. At the same time, the reality is
that
the effective and creative integration of faith and learning that produces
significant
breakthroughs for the Christian community will probably require a
significant
cooperative effort between scholars from biblical studies and a variety
of
other disciplines.
227
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