The Literary
Structure
of the Book of
Hebrews
David
J. MacLeod
Dean of the
Graduate Program
The past 30 years have witnessed
considerable discussion over
various
aspects of the Epistle to the Hebrews.l
This article and one
to
be published in the following issue focus on two areas of the
discussion,
namely, the literary structure of the epistle and the
doctrinal
center of the epistle. The first of these topics, the epistle's
literary
structure, is of importance in that it affects one's
understanding
of how the book is to be dlivided and of the author's
development
of his argument.2 This article summarizes the
traditional
approach to the epistle's structure and then examines
contemporary
contributions to the discussion.
1 A number of
important bibliographical resources are available. Cf. Erich Grasser,
"Der Hebraerbrief 1938–1963,"
Theologische Rundschau 30
(1964): 138-236; M. R.
Hillmer,
"Priesthood and Pilgrimage: Hebrews in Recent Research," Theological
Bulletin:
Contributions
to the Understanding of Hebrews," Expository
Times 80 (1968–69): 260-
64;
George W. Buchanan, "The
Christianity,
Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults, ed. Jacob Neusner,
Studies in Ju-
daism in Late
Antiquity 12:1 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975), pp. 299-330; William G. Johns-
son,
"Issues in the Interpretation of Hebrews,"
15
(1977): 169-87; idem, "The Cultus of Hebrews in
Twentieth-Century Scholarship,"
Expository
Times 89 (1978): 104-8; John C. McCullough, "Some Recent Developments in
Research
on the Epistle to the Hebrews,"
Irish Biblical Studies 2 (1980): 28-45.
2 For an
exposition of the argument of Hebrews, see this writer's "The Theology of
the
Epistle to the Hebrews: Introduction, Prolegomena, and Doctrinal Center" (ThD
diss.,
185
Conceptual
Analysis
Traditionally most presentations3
of the argument of Hebrews
have
divided the epistle in Pauline fashion into a section that is
mainly
doctrinal (1:1-10:18) and one that is mainly paraenetic
(10:19-13:25).4 In
some of the traditional presentations the doctrinal
section
is subdivided into two or more parts. Also the proponents of
this
traditional structure hold that there are paraenetic
passages
within
the doctrinal section5 and doctrinal contributions within the
paraenetic section.
The traditional presentations of the
argument divide the epis-
tle "into sections and
subsections so as to reveal the development of
the
argument."6 They attempt to map out the conceptual structure of
the
epistle, highlighting the author's themes such as the sonship
of
Christ,
the deity and humanity of Christ, the "rest" of God, the
high
priesthood of Christ, the New Covenant, the sacrifice of
Christ,
and the need for faithfulness and perseverance in the Chris-
tian life. While
most commentators have noted these basic themes,
they
have failed to agree on all the details "for the simple reason
that
the author [of Hebrews] composes like a musician intertwining
one
theme with another."7
Literary Patterns
in the Book
ANNOUNCEMENTS
OF SUBJECT
Dissatisfied with the ways most
previous scholars have ana-
lyzed the epistle,
Albert Vanhoye, a French Jesuit, has argued that
3 E.g., Henry
Alford, The Greek Testament, 4 vols.
(reprint,
1958),
4:76; Brooke Foss Westcott, The Epistle
to the Hebrews, 2d ed. (
Macmillan
& Co., 1892; reprint,
1965),
pp. xlviii-l; Dictionary of the Bible
(Hastings), s.v. "Hebrews, Epistle to," by
Alexander
Balmain Bruce, 2:327; A. Nairne,
The Epistle to the Hebrews (
University
Press, 1917), pp. xi-xii; Theodore H. Robinson, The Epistle to the Hebrews,
Moffatt New Testament
Commentaries (New York: Harper, 1933), p. xi; Antony Snell,
New and Living
Way
(London: Faith Press, 1959), pp. 52-54; Jean Hering, The Epistle
to the Hebrews, trans. A. W. Heathcote and P. J. Allsock (
1970),
p. xvi; Donald Guthrie, Hebrews,
Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Grand
Rapids:
Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1983), pp. 58-59.
Also see A. Robert and
Andre
Feuillet, Introduction to the New
Testament, trans. P. W. Skehan et al. (New
4 A paraenesis is an exhortation, a call for action.
5 "The
writer is unwilling, even in the development of Truth, to allow the loftiest
conception
of the Gospel to appear to be a theory only" (Westcott, The Epistle to the
Hebrews, p. li).
6 John Bligh,
"The Structure of Hebrews," Heythrop Journal 5
(April 1964): 171.
7 Ibid.
The Literary Structure of the Book of
Hebrews 187
the
key to the structure is to be found in six literary devices used by
the
author.9 Vanhoye's thesis has been widely
discussed10 and has
influenced
a number of modern commentators.11
The first of these devices he called annonces du sujet (announce-
ments of the subject)
or "signpost passages."12 These are brief state-
ments before a
section that indicate the main subject to be treated.
For
example 1:4, "much better than the angels"; 2:17, "that He might
become
a merciful and faithful high priest"; 5:9-10, "having been
made
perfect . . . designated by God as a high priest according to the
order
of Melchizedek"; 10:36-39, "you have need of endurance . . . we
are
. . . those who have faith"; and 12:11, "discipline . . . yields the
peaceful
fruit of righteousness."
INCLUSIOS
An inclusio
marks off a literary unit by using the same word or
phrase
at the end of a discussion that was used at the beginning. The
passage
1:5-13, for example, begins and ends with the phrase "to
which
of the angels?" Other examples13 are 2:5-16
("for . . . not .. .
angels");
3:1–4:14 (which begins and ends with "heaven[ly],"
"Jesus,"
"high
priest," and "confession"); 5:1-10 ("high priest");
5:11–6:12
("dull"
or "sluggish," nwqroi<);
7:1-10 ("Melchizedek" and "met");
12:14–13:20
("peace"). Shorter examples are "look" (ble<pw)
and
"unbelief"
(3:12, 19); "enter" and "rest" (4:1, 5); "word" (o[ lo<goj)
(4:12-13);
"priest" (7:1, 3); "Abraham" (7:4, 9);
"perfection" and
"law"
(7:11, 19); "oath" (7:20, 28); "first" (8:7, 13);
"regulations" (9:1,
10);
"Christ" (9:11, 14); "covenant" (9:15, 17); "without
blood" (9:18,
8 Structure may
be defined as the arrangement of the several parts of a written text
according
to criteria discernible on literary grounds" (James Swetnam,
"Form and Con-
tent
in Hebrews 1-6," Biblica
53 [1972]: 368, n. 1).
9 Albert Vanhoye, La Structure
Litteraire de l'Epitre aux Hebreux (
De
Brouwer, 1963). The main conclusions are presented in
English in Albert Vanhoye,
A Structured
Translation of the Epistle to the Hebrews, trans. James Swetnam (
Pontifical
Biblical Institute, 1964), pp. 3-7.
10 Cf., e.g.,
Bligh, "The Structure of Hebrews," pp. 170-77; T. C. G. Thornton,
"Reviews,"
Journal of Theological Studies, New
Series 15 (1964): 137-41.
11 Hugh W. Montefiore, The
Epistle to the Hebrews, Black's New Testament Com-
mentaries (London: Adam
and Charles Black, 1964), p. 31; George W. Buchanan, To the
Hebrews, The Anchor
Bible (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1972), p. ix; Neil R.
Lightfoot,
Jesus Christ Today (Grand Rapids:
Baker Book House, 1976), pp. 46-50; Paul
Ellingworth and Eugene A. Nida, A Translator's
Handbook of the Letter to the He-
brews (New York:
United Bible Societies, 1983), pp. 341-42; David A. Black, "The
Problem
of the Literary Structure of Hebrews: An Evaluation and a Proposal," Grace
Theological
Journal
7 (Fall 1986): 163-77.
12 Cf. Bligh,
"The Structure of Hebrews," p. 171.
13
Lightfoot,
Jesus Christ Today, p. 48.
188 Bibliotheca Sacra / April—June 1989
22);
"Christ" (9:24, 28); "year by year" (10:1, 3);
"offering" (10:11,
18);
"terrifying" (10:27, 31); "not seen" (11:1, 7); "not .
. . afraid" and
"king"
(11:23, 27); "through faith" (11:33, 39); "sons" (12:5, 8);
and
"leaders"
(13:7, 17).
HOOK
WORDS14
A hook word is a word at the beginning
of a paragraph repeated
from
the end of the preceding paragraph which links or hooks the
two
units together in a smooth transition. The main hook words in
Hebrews
are as follows:15
|
1:4,
a@ggeloi
("angels") 1:5, a@ggeloi 2:13,
paidi<a ("children") 2:14, paidi<a 2:17,
pisto<j ("faithful") 3:2, pisto<j 2:17,
a]rxiereu<j ("high priest") 3:1, a]rxiereu<j 3:19,
e]ise<rxomai ("enter") 4:1, e]ise<rxomai 4:5,
e]ise<rxomai ("enter") 4:6, e]ise<rxomai 4:14,
e@xw
("have") 4:15, e@xw 6:12,
e]paggeli<ai
("promises") 6:13, e]paggeli<ai |
8:13,
h[ prw<th ("the
first") 9:1,
h[ prw<th
9:23,
ta> e]poura<nia ("the heavenly things") 9:24, ou]rano<j 10:39,
pisto<j ("faith") 11:1, pisto<j 11:7,
klhrono<moj
("heir") 11:8, klhrono<moj
11:39,
marture<w ("gain approval," i.e.,
having been witnessed to) 12:1, martu<roi
("witnesses") 11:40,
h[ma?j
("us") 12:1, h[mei?j ("we") 12:24,
lale<w ("speaking") 12:25, lale<w |
CHARACTERISTIC
TERMS
These are terms that are repeated for
emphasis within a
particular
section. Vanhoye16 cited as
examples the word a@ggeloj
in
1:5-2:18 and the word pi<stij in 11:1-40.
ALTERNATION
OF LITERARY GENRES
The text of the epistle, Vanhoye noted, alternates between doc-
trinal exposition and
exhortation. For example the two paragraphs
of
exposition in the first part of Vanhoye's outline
(1:5-14; 2:5-18)
14 Vanhoye's concept of mots-crochets or "hook words" was first suggested by L. Va-
ganay ("Le Plan
de 1'Epitre aux Hebreux," in Memorial Lagrange [
77).
Cf. Thornton, "Reviews," p. 138, n. 1.
15 Lightfoot, Jesus Christ Today, p. 49.
16 Vanhoye, A Structured
Translation of the Epistle to the Hebrews, p. 4.
The
Literary Structure of the Book of Hebrews 189
are
separated by a paragraph of exhortation (2:1-4). In his overall
analysis
of the epistle he saw the following pattern:
1:1-4 Introduction
1:5-14 Exposition
2:1-4 Paraenesis
2:5-5:10 Exposition
5:11-6:20 Paraenesis17
7:1-10:18 Exposition
10:19-39 Paraenesis
11:1-40 Exposition
12:1-13 Paraenesis
12:14-13:19 Paraenesis
13:20-25 Conclusion
In
a more recent study Fenton has made the same observation and
has
divided the epistle as follows:18
1:1-4 Introduction
1:5-14 Exposition
2:1-4 Exhortation
2:5-18 Exposition
3:1-4:16 Exhortation
5:1-10 Exposition
5:11-6:20 Exhortation
7:1-10:18 Exposition
10:19-39 Exhortation
11:1-40 Exposition
12:1-29 Exhortation
13:1-25 Conclusion
Fenton made three significant
observations about this pattern of
alternation:
(1) Verbs in the imperative are more common in the ex-
hortations than in the
expositions. (2) The author used third person
17 According to Vanhoye's scheme Hebrews 5:11-6:20 introduces a new
section. This
suggests,
however, that paraenesis is presented before exposition, "surely a
reversal of
the
normal procedure" (Swetnam, "Form and
Content in Hebrews 1-6," p. 385).
18 J. C. Fenton,
"The Argument in Hebrews," Studio
Evangelica 7 (1982): 175-76. For an
outline
similar to Fenton's see William G. Johnsson, Hebrews, Knox Preaching Guides
(Atlanta:
John Knox, 1980), p. 2. Also see George E. Rice, "Apostasy as a Motif and
Its
Effect
on the Structure of Hebrews,"
1985):
29-35.
expressions
in the expositions (e.g., 1:14; 2:11; 5:9; 9:15, 28; 10:1, 14),
but
he used the first and second persons in verbs in the hortatory
passages.
(3) Four of the five exhortations are introduced by "there-
fore"
(dia> tou?to, 2:1; o!qen, 3:1; ou#n, 10:19; toigarou?n, 12:1).19
SYMMETRICAL
ARRANGEMENTS (I.E., CHIASMUS)
Vanhoye
argued that the structure of the epistle, both as a whole
and
in its parts, shows numerous chiastic patterns (symetries concen-
triques).20 By way of example he pointed to the central
section of his
outline
(8:1-9:28) where, he argued, the six subdivisions "mutually
correspond,
two by two, according to a concentric order (the first with
the
sixth, the second with the fifth, the third with the fourth)."
c.
The old worship, earthly and figurative (8:1-6)
b. The first covenant, imperfect and
provisional: (8:7-13)
a . The old and powerless
institutions of worship (9:1-10)
A. The new, efficacious
institutions (9:11-14)
B . The new covenant (9:15-23)
C.
The entrance to heaven (9:24-28).21
Other examples of chiastic structure
are given by Lightfoot.22
First
he cites 1:5-8:
Son-------| |---------------angels
----|-------|
angels -------- ----------Son
He
also mentions 4:16:
that
we may receive ---| |----mercy
------------|
and
grace --------------------| | --- we may find
19 In 5:11-14 the
author shifted from the third person (5:9) to the first and second, so
Fenton
included this paragraph in the third hortatory section (i.e., 5:11-6:20). He
noted
that 6:1 begins with "therefore" (dio<), but conceded
that this probably refers
back
to 5:11-14 and not 5:1-10 (Fenton, "The Argument in Hebrews," p.
176). It might be
added
here that the author used a number of additional "therefores,'
"wherefores" or
"thens" to introduce shorter exhortations (dio<,
3:7; ou#n, 4:1; ou#n, 4:11; ou#n, 4:14; ou#n, 4:16;
dio<,
12:12; dio<,
12:28; toi<nun, 13:13; ou#n, 13:15). Cf. C. J. Sanford, "The Addressees of
Hebrews"
(ThD diss., Dallas Theological Seminary, 1962), pp.
68-69. Cf. also 'W. C.
Linss, "Logical
Terminology in the Epistle to the Hebrews," Concordia Theological
Monthly 37 (June 1966):
365.
20
Vanhoye, A
Structured Translation of the Epistle to the Hebrews, p. 4; cf.
"Reviews,"
p. 138.
21
Ibid., pp. 4, 20-23.
22
Lightfoot, Jesus Christ Today, p. 47.
For other examples see Philip E.. Hughes, A
Commentary on
the Epistle to the Hebrews (
Publishing
Co., 1977), pp. 49, 90.
The Literary
Structure of the Book of Hebrews 191
Vanhoye's chiastic
analysis of the entire epistle is as follows:23
a
Introduction (1:1-4)
1 The name above that of angels
(1:5-2:18)
2 a Jesus, the faithful one (3:1-4:14)
2b Jesus, the
compassionate high priest (4:15-5:10)
—Preliminary exhortation (5:11-6:20)
3a Jesus
and Melchizedek (7:1-28)
3b
Jesus attained fulfillment (8:19:28)
3c
Jesus, cause of salvation (10:1-18)
—Final exhortation (10:19-39)
4a The faith of
men of old (11:1-40)
4b Endurance is necessary
(12:1-13)
5 The fruit of righteousness
(12:14-13:19)
z
Conclusion (13:20-25).
Unquestionably Vanhoye
rendered a valuable service to students
of
the Epistle to the Hebrews. His emphasis on the alternation be-
tween exposition and paraenesis is a significant one, and his
observations
concerning announcements and hook words demonstrate
the
careful structure of the epistle. Much of his outline is correct. For
example,
1:1-2:14 and 7:1-28 are distinct units; 8:1 begins a new divi-
sion; 10:19
introduces an exhortation; and 11:1-40 is a distinct unit.24
Nevertheless particular aspects of his
study have been criti-
cized.25
The following observations may be made. (1) "Literary
principles
alone are not a sufficient basis for analyzing structure."26
Such
principles cannot be considered in isolation from content.27 To
cite
just one example, it is unlikely that the phrase "peaceful fruit of
righteousness"
(12:11) announces a major division in the argument.28
(2)
The titles assigned to the sections do not reflect the development
23 Vanhoye, A Structured
Translation of the Epistle to the Hebrews, p. 7. The typo-
graphical
arrangement given here is adapted from Ellingworth
and Nida (A Transla-
tor's Handbook
on the Letter to the Hebrews, p. 342). It is designed to show Vanhoye's
concentric
or chiastic view of the epistle.
24 James Swetnam, "Form and Content in Hebrews 7-13," Biblica 55
(1974): 346.
25 Bligh,
"The Structure of Hebrews," pp. 173-77;
Swetnam, "Form and
Content in Hebrews 1-6," pp. 368-85; idem, "Form and Content in
Hebrews
7-13," pp. 333-48.
26 Swetnam, "Form and Content in Hebrews 1-6," p.
385; cf. p. 369.
27 Swetnam, "Form and Content in Hebrews 7-13," p.
347.
28 Bligh,
"The Structure of Hebrews," p. 174.
192 Bibliotheca Sacra / April—June 1989
of
the author's thought, that is, they do not indicate the direction
the
argument is taking.29
(3) While a number of small chiastic
patterns are to be found,
the
existence of a large-scale pattern embracing all sections of the
epistle
is to be questioned for several reasons. First, Vanhoye
con-
cluded that 13:19 and
13:22-25 were not originally a part of Hebrews
in
that they do not fit his chiastic structure.30 Any proposal, how-
ever,
that eliminates part of the original document must be consid-
ered a failure.31
Second, Vanhoye's concentric structure led him to
see
correspondences between sections I and V and between II and IV
according
to the scheme Eschatology-Eschatology and Ecclesiology-
Ecclesiology
with the central section (III) being devoted to sacri-
fice.32
I. 1:5-2:18 Eschatology
II. 3:1-5:10 Ecclesiology
III. 5:11-10:39 Sacrifice
IV. 11:1-12:13 Ecclesiology
V . 12:14-13:18 Eschatology
These categories are somewhat forced,
however. One might ask
for
example, how 13:1-6 can be included under eschatology when
11:1-40
is omitted (cf. especially vv. 1, 9-10, 16, 40). Further there is
no
clear parallel between section 1 (entitled "A name so different
from
the name of the angels") and section 5 (entitled "The peaceful
fruit
of righteousness").33 Third, Vanhoye's
work seemed to assume
that
the epistle was composed by using modern literary conventions
(chapter
headings, clearly marked paragraphs, punctuation, and
modern
typographical layout). The epistle, however, was written
without
any breaks, subdivisions, punctuation, or other modern
writing
aids. It was written to be read aloud, not silently. None of
the
first listeners would be able to appreciate the elaborate sym-
metrical
patterns Vanhoye envisioned.34
29 Ibid., p. 175.
30 Vanhoye, La Structure
Litteraire, pp. 219-21, cited by Floyd V. Filson, Yesterday:
A Study of
Hebrews in the Light of Chapter 13 (
1966),
pp. 15-16, n. 8.
31 Buchanan felt
that Vanhoye's outline would be improved if Hebrews
13 were
eliminated.
Buchanan believed that Hebrews originally had only 12 chapters ("The
32 Vanhoye, La Structure
Litteraire, pp. 238-47, cited by Swetnam, "Form and Content
in
Hebrews 7-13," p. 345.
33 Swetnam, "Form and Content in Hebrews 7-13," p.
345.
34
The Literary
Structure of the Book of Hebrews 193
(4) Not all of Vanhoye's
literary devices, therefore, are of equal
value.
Swetnam, for example, singled out announcements,
genres of
exposition
and exhortation, and length as primary criteria and cited
inclusios, hook words,
and characteristic terms as subsidiary.35 (5)
The
complexity posed by the convergence of all the criteria
(inclusios, hook words, announcements, characteristic words,
and
chiastic
patterns) is a problem to even the most alert minds.36
COMPARATIVES
In addition to the six literary devices
noted by Vanhoye, six
others
have a bearing on the author's argument. It has been ob-
served,
for example, that the author used a large number of
comparatives
to support his argument (which runs through the entire
epistle)
that the new revelation in Christ is superior to the old. The
following
comparatives are used:37 diaforw<terwj
("more excellent,"
1:4;
8:6); e@llatwn
("lesser," 7:7; cf. e]latto<w, 2:7, 9); krei?ttwn/
krei?sswn
("better," 1:4; 6:9; 7:7, 19, 22; 8:6 [twice]; 9:23; 10:34; 11:16,
35,
40; 12:24); ma?llon
("more," 9:14; 10:25; 12:9, 13, 25); mei<zwn
("greater,"
6:13, 16; 9:11; 11:26); perisso<teron) ("even
more," 6:17;
7:15);
perissote<rwj ("all the
more," 2:1; 13:19); plei<wn
("more," 3:3
[twice];
7:23; 11:4); teleiote<roj ("more
perfect," 9:11); tomw<teroj
("sharper,"
4:12); u[yhlo<teroj
("exalted, above," 7:26); and xei<rwn
("severer,"
10:29).38
TERMS
DENOTING FINALITY
It has also been observed39
that a number of terms (viz., "new,"
"once,"
"eternal/forever," "perfect") in Hebrews suggest that the
author
is arguing the superiority or finality of the new revelation as
compared
with the old. Christ has established a New (kainh<) Cov-
enant which has made
the first obsolete (pepalai<wken, 8:13; cf.
9:15).
He has inaugurated (e]gkaini<zw)
a new (pro<sfatoj) way into
God's
presence (10:20).
35 Swetnam, "Form and Content in Hebrews 7–13," p.
333. Swetnam's
"announcements"
are 1:4; 2:3-4; 2:17-18; 4:13; 6:20; 7:29; 10:18, 39; 12:1-2; 12:28-29 (p.
347)
.
36 Ibid., p. 346.
37 Fenton,
"The Argument in Hebrews," pp. 176-77.
38 Other
comparative terms occur: w[j (22
times), ou$twj (9 times), kaqw<j
(8 times),
tosou?toj (5 times), w!sper (3 times), o[moio<w (3 times), w[sei<, kaqa<per,
kaqw<sper, w!ste (once each). Cf. Linss,
"Logical Terminology in the Epistle to the Hebrews," p. 368.
39 Donald Medford
Stine, "The Finality of the Christian Faith: A Study of the Un-
folding
Argument of the Epistle to the Hebrews, Chapters 1-7" (ThD
diss.,
Theological
Seminary, 1964), pp. 29-44.
194 Bibliotheca Sacra /
April-June 1989
Besides this revelation through Christ
being "new" it is also
unique,
as the author illustrates by his use of e]fa<pac and a!pac.
Christ
has been once (a!pac) manifested to
put away sin (9:26). In
sharp
contrast to the daily sacrifices and unending service of the Old
Testament
priests (9:6; 10:11), Jesus has offered Himself once for all
(e]fa<pac, 7:27) and has
once for all (e]fa<pac,
9:12) entered the
heavenly
sanctuary.40
The new order is also eternal. Under
the Old Covenant the priests
died,
but under the new there is a Priest who abides forever (ei]j
to>n
ai]w?na, 7:23-24). The
new order, in contrast with the old (cf. 7:19;
10:1),
"perfects" (teleio<w)
the worshipers of God (10:12-.14; cf. 7:11).
A
FORTIORI ARGUMENTS
Building on the accepted assumptions
of his readers (i.e., on the
authority
of the Law, the efficacy of the Old Testament sacrifices,
and
reverence for one's father) the author used a series of a fortiori
arguments
to demonstrate the supremacy of the new revelation in
Christ:41
2:1-3; 9:13-14; 10:28-29; 12:9, 25. The more serious perils
and
more effective promises of the new revelation were presented a
fortiori
with the clear implication that the new revelation is better.
FORMAL
CONTRAST
The author also used adversative
particles to delineate the
contrast
between the old and new revelations.42 He contrasted the an-
gels
and the Son of God in 1:7-8 (me<n . . . de<), angels and
man in 2:5-6
(ou] ga>r . . . de<), fallen man and messianic man in 2:8-9
(ou@pw . . .
de<), the Son and Moses in 3:5-6 (me<n . . . de<), Jesus and the Levitical
high
priest in 4:15 (ou] . . . de<), the sons of Levi and Melchizedek in
7:5-6
(me<n . . . de<) and 7:8 (w$de me>n . . . e]kei? de>), the physical re-
quirement of the Law and
Christ's indestructible life in 7:16 (ou] . . .
a]lla<), the weak
commandment and the better hope in 7:18-19 (me<n .
. .
de<), the authority in back of the Levitical priests and the Son in
7:20-21
(me<n . . . de<), the transitoriness
of the Old Testament priest-
hood
and the permanence of that of Christ in 7:23-24 (me<n
. . . de<),
the
earthly ministry of the Levitical priesthood and the
heavenly
one
of Christ in 8:4-6 (me<n . . . nuni>
de>),
the earthly tabernacle of
the
Old Testament and the perfect tabernacle of Christ in 9:1-5, 11
(me>n . . . Xristo>j de<), and the Old Testament
sacrifices and the sac-
rifice of Christ in
9:23-24 (de< . . . a]ll
] ),
9:25-26 (nuni> de a!pac) and
10:11-13
(ou]de<pote . . . de<).
40 Cf. Oscar Cullmann, Christ and
Time, trans. F. V. Filson (
41 Stine,
"The Finality of the Christian Faith," pp. 44-47.
42 Ibid., pp.
61-82.
The Literary
Structure of the Book of Hebrews 195
REPEATED
THEMES
In discussing Vanhoye's
work, Buchanan noted that certain
themes
echo throughout the epistle: (1) the origin of the ages (1:2;
11:3),
(2) exaltation (1:3; 4:14; 7:26; 8:1), (3) high priest (2:17; 3:1-2;
4:14-15;
6:20; 7:26; 8:1; 9:11), (4) holding fast (3:6; 3:14; 10:23), and (5)
the
promises (4:1; 6:11-12, 15, 17; 8:6; 9:15; 10:36; 11:9, 13, 17, 39). The
author
of Hebrews, Buchanan said, was a literary artist who did not
say
all that he had to say on a subject in one place, even though his
units
were well structured. Instead he "composed his document as in-
tricately and as
carefully as a musical composer might, with many
themes
woven throughout."43
TOPIC
SENTENCES
Stine has argued that the epistle
falls into three sections: 1:1-
7:28;
8:1-10:18; and 10:19-13:25. He noted that each is introduced by
a
topic sentence: 1:1-4; 8:1-2; and 10:19-25.44
Scripture
Citations in the Book
A number of North American scholars,
approaching the Epistle
to
the Hebrews from another angle, have contended that the au-
thor's argument is
structured around several Old Testament citations.
These
interpreters disagree, however, on which Old Testament pas-
sages
are key: Caird suggested Psalms 8, 95, 110, and
Jeremiah 31;
Kistemaker had Psalms 8,
95, 110, 40; Longenecker mentioned the
catena
of citations in Hebrews 1, Psalms 8, 95, 110, and Jeremiah 31;
and
Johnson offered Psalms 2 and 110, Jeremiah 31, and Psalm 40.45 In
43 Buchanan,
"The
44 Stine, “The
Finality of the Christian Faith,” p. 106, nn. 2 and
3. Other scholars
have
divided the epistle in the same way as Stine (e.g., Gleason L. Archer, The Epistle
to the Hebrews, Shield Bible
Study Series [
pp.
9-14; Carter, "Hebrews," in The Wesleyan Bible Commentary, 6 vol.,
ed. Charles
W.
Carter [
Michel
also divided the epistle into three sections: 1:1-4:13; 4:14-10:39; and 11:1-
13:25
(Der Brief an die Hebraer,
12th ed. [
1966],
pp. 92, 204, 368). Others have followed a similar threefold division, including
Paul
Feine and Johannes Behm, Introduction to the New Testament, ed.
W. G. Kummel,
trans.
A. J. Mattill (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1966), pp.
274-75; Snell, New and Liv-
ing Way, pp. 52-54. Swetnam
based his threefold division on the occurrence of
o[mologi<a
("confession") in 3:1; 4:14; and 10:23 ("Form and Content in
Hebrews 7-13," p.
347).
Franz Delitzsch in an earlier time had also divided
the epistle into three sec-
tions: 1:1–6:20;
7:1–10:18; and 10:19–13:25 (Commentary on
the Epistle to the Hebrews,
2
vols., trans. T. L. Kingbury [
Klock & Klock, 1978], 1:v-vii; 2:v-vii).
45
George
B. Caird, "The Exegetical Method of the Epistle
to the Hebrews,"
Canadian Journal
of Theology
5 (1959): 44-51; Simon Kistemaker, The Psalm Citations
196 Bibliotheca Sacra / April-June 1989
spite
of this minor disagreement, however, these writers agree that
the
major sections of the epistle all have at their core an Old Testa-
ment passage that
controls the drift of the argument.46 Adopting a
composite
list, including the suggestions of all four scholars, one
might
outline the epistle as follows:
Section
in Hebrews Old
Testament Passage
1:1-2:4 Psalms 2
and 110 (cf. 2 Sam. 7)
2:5-18 Psalm
8:4-6
3:1-4:13 Psalm
95:7-11
4:14-7:28 Psalm 110:4
8:1-9:28 Jeremiah
31:31-34
10:1-18 Psalm
40:6-8
10:19-13:25 Psalm 95:7-11
(Habakkuk
2:3-4?).47
Conclusions
Interpreters of Hebrews have differed
widely in their analyses
of
the overall structure of the epistle. Mackay's observation that
exegetes
of Hebrews have "always been happier with the trees than
the
wood"48 is well taken.49 Nevertheless each
interpreter must
in the Epistle
to the Hebrews (Amsterdam:
Wed. G. Van Soest N. V., 1961), pp. 95-131;
Richard
N. Longenecker, Biblical
Exegesis in the Apostolic Period (
Wm.
B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1975), pp. 174-85; S.
Lewis Johnson, The Old Testa-
ment in the New (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing
House, 1980), pp. 53-54. Cf.
also
H. J. B. Combrink, "Some Thoughts on the Old
Testament Citations in the Epistle
to
the Hebrews," Neotestamentica
5 (1971): 31. Combrink said the Old Testament
quotations
"constitute the framework of this letter." Buchanan asserted that
Psalm
110
"is the main text of the entire book" (Hebrews, pp. 8, 132).
46 Caird, "The Exegetical Method of the Epistle to the
Hebrews," p. 47. Caird said
of
other Old Testament passages in Hebrews: "All other scriptural references
[in He-
brews]
are ancillary to these" Old Testament passages.
47 Kistemaker classified 10:19-13:25 under faithfulness (The Psalm Citations in the
Epistle to the
Hebrews,
p. 131, n. 1). The present writer suggests Habakkuk 2:3-4 (cf.
Heb.
10:37-38) in that it strikes both an eschatological note (cf. Heb. 11:9, 10,
16, 40;
12:22-28;
13:14) and a note of exhortation to faithfulness and perseverance (cf. Heb. 11;
12:1-13;
13:7-17), themes that dominate the final section of the epistle.
48 Cameron Mackay,
"The Argument of Hebrews," Church
Quarterly Review 168
(1967):
325-38.
49 James Moffatt (A Critical
and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the He-
brews, International
Critical Commentary [
xxiv)
implied that it was artificial to divide the epistle into formal divisions and
subdivisions,
yet he went ahead and gave a general plan:
A.
The personality of the Son (1:1-4:13)
B.
The Son as high priest (4:14-7:28)
C.
The sacrifice of this high priest (8:1-10:18)
D.
Appeals for constancy (10:1.9-13:25).
The Literary
Structure of the Book of Hebrews 197
study
the epistle for himself, carefully evaluate the observations of
others,
and then set forth a structure that helps the reader make the
most
sense out of Hebrews.50
The present writer suggests the
following conclusions: (1) The lit-
erary devices
suggested by Vanhoye provide the interpreter with a
measure
of certainty in determining the "joints" of the epistle's struc-
ture. (2) Of the
literary devices Vanhoye suggested, announcements,
hook
words, and the alternation of literary genres are primary, yet
the
others, though subsidiary, help the interpreter see how the au-
thor constructed his
units of thought. (3) Any presentation of the au-
thor's argument must
make clear that his expositions lead to exhor-
tations in five major
sections (2:1-4; 3:1–4:16; 5:11–6:20; 10:19-39; 12:1-
29).51
(4) Content—that is, the basic themes or concepts of the author
as
recognized in the history of the exegesis of the epistle—as well as
literary
devices must be taken into account when presenting the ar-
gument. If literary
principles and content are divorced, then the
content
will be distorted.52 (5) The author's use of comparatives,
terms
denoting finality, a fortiori arguments, and adversative par-
ticles make clear the
overall thrust of his argument, namely, that
the
priesthood, covenant, and sacrifice of Christ are superior to the
priesthood,
covenant, and sacrifices of the Old Testament. (6) It is
evident
that the entire argument is built around several key Old
Testament
passages (viz., Pss. 2; 8; 95; 110; Jer. 31; Ps. 40;
Hab. 2).
50 Swetnam, "Form and Content in Hebrews 7-13," p.
348.
51 On the basis of
the threefold occurrence of o[mologi<a ("confession,"
3:1; 4:14; 10:23)
Swetnam argued for
three paraenetic sections (3:1-4:13; 4:14-6:20; and
10:19-39) ("Form
and
Content in Hebrews 7-13," p. 347).
52 Swetnam, "Form and Content in Hebrews 1-6," p.
369. The two articles by Swetnam
are
helpful in achieving a balance between form and content. He warned, however,
that
though a measure of certainty is possible in structuring and tracing the
argument,
absolute
certainty is not. He wrote, "Scientific 'certitude' as this term is
applied to
literary
interpretation ... can be positively misleading; any attempt to achieve a
quasi-mathematical
certitude by isolating 'objective' factors which can then be pre-
sumed reliable for
determining meaning is to try to impose on words an alien
methodology"
("Form and Content in Hebrews 7-13," p. 348).
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