FULLER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
THE INNOCENT
SUFFERER IN THE BOOK OF PROVERBS
A Dissertation
submitted to
the Faculty of the
Fuller Theological
Seminary
in partial
fulfillment of
the requirements for the
degree of
Doctor of
Philosophy
BY
DANIEL P. BRICKER
MAY
1998
The Innocent Sufferer in the Book
of Proverbs
written
by
Daniel P.
Bricker
and submitted in partial
fulfillment of the
requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of
Philosophy
has
been awarded by the Faculty of Fuller Theological Seminary
upon the recommendation of
the following readers:
__________________
Ronald
Youngblood
__________________
Frederic
William Bush
___________________
Duane
Garrett
5/27/98
Date
Acknowledgments
It is difficult for me to thank everyone who deserves
credit. My
friends and family
members deserve recognition for the role they
played in offering
unswerving support.
First on the list are my parents, Paul and Therese Bricker
of
and I can never repay
them for all they have done for me, both in
relation to this
program and in almost every other area of my life as
well. Then I would like
to thank all my friends who are far too
numerous to mention by
name. I would not have made it without
their prayers and
encouragement.
I must make special mention of the late Dr. David Allan
Hubbard, my first
mentor in the program, who provided me with the
guidance and
encouragement that I sorely needed. I was admitted to
the program with a
nine-year gap between my master's degree and
the start of doctoral
work, and I had a lot of catching up to do. I
regret very deeply that
I was unable to present him with a finished
copy of this
dissertation before he passed away June 6, 1996.
I would also like to thank my primary mentor, Dr. Ronald F.
Youngblood, whose
advice was helpful in many ways. Dr. Young-
blood was kind enough
to take over about halfway through the
program when Dr.
Hubbard retired in 1993. I appreciate his patience
due to the length of
time it took me to complete the program because
iv
of financial restraints
and a whole host of computer and word
processing problems. My
secondary mentor, Dr. Fred Bush, also
offered some extremely
helpful advice and I wish I had been able to
incorporate some of his
thoughts and insights into this study a little
earlier in the process.
My external reader, Dr. Duane Garrett also
deserves recognition.
This study interacts with Dr. Garrett's
commentary at many
points and I feel honored that he was willing to
read and evaluate my
dissertation.
And special thanks go to Dr. Francis I. and Dr. Lois C.
Ander-
sen, who treated me
like family, offering advice and practical help in
many ways that I could
not have done without as I drew near to the
end of this project.
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to the memory of
my
close friend, Zane A.
Mills, who died tragically on March 3, 1996. He
was like family to me
for nearly twenty years and no one could have
asked for a better
friend. He knew more about innocent suffering
from personal experience
than anyone I have ever known.
It is my sincere desire that this dissertation not be left
on the
academic shelf, but
that someday it will contribute toward the min-
istry of the Church. If
this dissertation adds to the knowledge of Pro-
verbs and makes a
contribution to that ministry, whether mine or
anyone else's, it will
have been worth it.
v
Outline
and Table of Contents
Acknowledgments iv
Outline and Table of
Contents vi
List of Abbreviations xiv
Chapter 1: An
Examination of the Issues 1
Introduction 1
I. The Issue of
Theodicy 3
A. Definition 3
B. OT Books Related to Theodicy 6
1. Job 7
a. The Prologue 7
b. The Dialogue 9
c. The Divine Speeches 10
d. The Epilogue 17
2. Qoheleth 18
a. 3:16-17 19
b. 4:1-3 20
c. 6:1-9 22
d. 7:15-18 24
e. 8:9-9:12 26
II. Suffering in the
Literature of the Ancient Near East 28
A. Mesopotamian Literature 29
1. Sumerian Literature 35
a "Man and His God" 36
vi
b.
Letter-Prayers 38
2. Akkadian Literature 42
a. The
Pious Sufferer 42
b. Ludlul
Bel Nemeqi 44
c.
R.S. 25.460 49
d. Babylonian
Theodicy 50
e. The Poem of Erra 54
B. Egyptian Literature 58
1. The Absence of Theodicy in
2. Suffering Is Due to Perversion of Ma’at 65
a. Admonitions
of Ipuwer 66
b. Dispute
of a Man with His Ba 67
c. Tale
of the Eloquent Peasant 70
d. Teaching
of Amenemhet 73
3. Inequality or Injustice was Often Rectified in
the
Afterlife 75
C. Conclusion 75
1. A Clear Sense of Right and Wrong 77
a.
b.
2. Significant Individual Worth 79
a.
b.
3. Conflict Between Deities 82
4. Judgment in the Afterlife 83
vii
a.
b.
Chapter
2: The Lack of Discussion Related to Innocent
Suffering in the Book of Proverbs 86
Introduction 86
I. Past Assumptions 86
A. Proverbs is Conventional Wisdom 87
1. Reflection of a "Divine" Order 87
2. Doctrine of Retribution 96
a. Forensic Retribution 100
(1) Proverbs 3:32-35 101
(2) Proverbs 5:21-23 103
b. Dynamistic Retribution 105
(1) Proverbs 11:31 106
(2) Proverbs 24:15-16 110
B. Job and Qoheleth React Against the Dogmatism
of Proverbs 111
II. A Current Proposal 116
A. Many Proverbs Refer to and/or Assume
Innocent Suffering 116
1. Parental Suffering 116
2. Emotional Suffering 117
3. Suffering Due to the Words/Deeds of Others 117
B. Job and Qoheleth are Not Necessarily in Opposition
to Proverbs 118
C. Correctly Understanding the Proverb Genre Negates
Dogmatizing 122
viii
D. Conclusion 124
Chapter
Three: Parental Suffering in Proverbs 126
Introduction 126
I. Parents in the OT 126
A. Social Structure and Duties 127
1. Structure of Kin Groups 127
a. Tribe Fb,we,
hF.,ma
128
b. Clan hHAPAw;mi 128
c. Family bxA-tyBe
130
2. Roles of Individuals 132
a. Father 132
b. Mother 133
c. Children 136
B. The Family as a Setting for Wisdom 137
1. The Origin of Family Wisdom 138
a. Parents as Teachers 145
b. "My Son(s)"--Literal or
Figurative? 147
2. The Purpose of Family Wisdom 149
a. Proverbs Directed Toward Children 150
b. Proverbs Directed Toward Parents 151
II. Analysis of
Individual Proverbs 154
A. Parents of Fools 154
1. 10:1 (lysiK;) 156
ix
2. 15:5 (lyvix<
) 159
3. 15:20 (lysiK;) 160
4. 17:21 (lysiK;, lbAnA),
17:25 (lysiK;) 162
5. 19:13 (lysiK;) 165
B. Parents and Public Shame, Mocking, Disgrace, etc 167
1. Shame (wybime)
and Disgrace (MlaKA)
167
a. 10:5 (wybime
NB,)
167
b. 19:26 (wybime NB,//ryPiH;ma) 171
c. 29:15 (wybime) 174
d. 28:7 (MlaKA)
176
2. Cursing (llaqA)
182
a. 20:20 183
b. 30:11 184
3. Mocking (gfalA)
and Scorning (zUB)
30:17 186
4. Robbery (lzaGA)
28:24 189
C. Conclusion 191
Chapter
4: Emotional Suffering in the Book of Proverbs
193
Introduction 193
I. The Somatic Expression
of Ancient Hebrew Psychology 193
A. Pre-Scientific Terminology and Broad Meanings 193
1. Heart (ble/bbAle)
193
a. ble
as the Anatomical Organ 194
x
b. ble as the Center of Inner Life 195
c. ble
as the
Religious Life 195
d. ble
as Representative of the Whole 196
e. ble
as a
2. Spirit (HaUr)
196
3. Soul (wp,n,)
197
B. Similar Uses in Egyptian, Akkadian and Ugaritic 198
1. Egyptian 198
a. Heart (ib and ha.ty) 198
b. Spirit (ba and ka) 199
(1) ba 199
(2) ka 199
2. Akkadian and Ugaritic 200
a. Akkadian 200
(1) libbu 200
(2) napistu 200
b. Ugaritic 201
(1) lb 201
(2) rwh 201
(3) nps 201
II. Analysis of
Specific Proverbs Related to Emotional Suffering 202
A. Heart (ble)
202
1. 12:25 202
xi
2. 13:12 206
3. 14:10, 13 213
4. 15:13 217
5. 25:20 219
B. Spirit (HaUr)
225
1. 15:4 225
2. 15:13 226
3. 17:22 227
4. 18:14 229
C. Soul (wp,n,)
230
1. 14:10 231
2. 28:17 231
3. 29.10 232
D. Conclusion 236
Chapter 5: Innocent
Suffering Due to the Words or Deeds
of Others 238
Introduction 238
I. The Legal System 238
A. Judicial Process in the Ancient Near East 239
B. Judicial Process in Ancient
C. The Legal Process at Work 245
D. Proverbs and Legal Action 246
1. False Witness/False Accusation 246
2. Reversal of Justice 247
3. Value of the Legal Process 248
xii
4.
Royal Justice 249
5. The Legal Process and Everyday Life 251
6. How Can Justice Be Understood? 254
E. Analysis of Individual Proverbs Regarding Innocent
Suffering and the Legal System 255
1. 3:30 255
2. 13:23 257
3. 17:15 259
4. 17:26 260
II. Damaging Words
11:9, 11 263
III. Harmful Actions 265
A. 1:8-19 266
B. 3:27-35 268
C. 6:16-19 272
D. 16:29 274
E. 17:13 278
IV. Conclusion 279
Chapter
6: Final Summary 281
Bibliography
293
CurriculumVitae
318
xiii
List
of Abbreviations
This is a list of abbreviations
commonly used in this
dissertation.
They are the standard abbreviations found in most
scholarly
publications, but are listed here for the reader's
convenience.
For full documention see the bibliography.
Abbreviations
for books of the Bible are standard.
AB Anchor
Bible
ABD David
N. Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible
Dictionary, 6
vols.
AEL Miriam
Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian
Literature, 3 vols.
AfO Archiv fur
Orientforschung
ANE Ancient Near East(ern)
ANET James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near.
Eastern Texts
Related to the Old Testament,
3rd ed. with
supplement
AnSt Anatolian Studies
AOAT Alten
Orient and Altes Testament
BA Biblical Archaeologist
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental
Research
BDB Francis Brown, S. R.
Driver, and C. A.
Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the
Old Testament
BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia
Bib Biblica
BibSac Bibliotheca Sacra
BKAT Biblischer
Kommentar, Alten Testament
xiv
BWL W.
G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom
Literature
BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die
alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft
CAD
the Oriental
Institute of the University of
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CTA Andrea Herdner, Corpus des
Tablettes en
Cuneiformes
Alphabetiques Decouvertes a
Ras Shamra-Ugarit, 2 vols.
FOTL Forms
of Old Testament Literature
HAL Ludwig
Koehler and Walter Baumgartner,
Hebraisches and Aramaisches Lexikon
zum Alten
Testament. Dritte Auflage; 4 Bande
HS Hebrew Studies
HUCA
IDB G.
A. Buttrick, ed., Interpreter's
Dictionary
of the Bible, 3 vols.
IDBSup K.
Crim, ed., Interpreter's Dictionary of
the
Bible,
Supplementary Volume
ICC International
Critical Commentary
ISBE Geoffrey
Bromiley, ed., International
Standard Bible
Encyclopedia,
rev. ed., 4 vols.
JANES Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Studies of
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
xv
JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological
Society
JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JNSL Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSOTSS JSOT Supplement Series
JSS Journal of Semitic
Studies
JTS Journal of Theological
Studies
KAT Kommentar zum Alten
Testament
KJV Holy Bible, King James
Version
LA W. Helck and E. Otto,
Hrsg., Lexikon der
Agyptologie,
7 Bande
LAE William K. Simpson, ed., Literature of
Ancient
MDOG Mitteilungen der deutschen
Orient-
Gesellschaft
NAC New American Commentary
NCBC New
Century Bible Commentary
NIDNTT Colin Brown, ed., New International
Dictionary of New
Testament Theology, 4 vols.
NICOT New International Commentary
on the Old Testament
NIV Holy
Bible, New International Version
NASV Holy Bible, New
American Standard Version
NKJV Holy
Bible, New King James Version
NRSV Holy
Bible, New Revised Standard Version
OBO Orbis
Biblicus et Orientalis
OT Old
Testament
xvi
OTL Old
Testament Library
Or Orientalia
RB Revue
Biblique
RQ Restoration
Quarterly
RSV Holy
Bible, Revised Standard Version
RTP Revue
de theologie et de philosophie
SBLDS Society
of Biblical Literature Dissertation
Series
SBLSBS Society
of Biblical Literature Sources for
Biblical Study
SJT Scottish
Journal of Theology
TDNT G.
Kittel, ed., Theological Dictionary of
the
New Testament,
10 vols.
TDOT G.
J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren, ed.,
Theological Dictionary of the Old
Testament,
8 vols.
ThZ Theologische
Zeitschrift
TLZ Theologische
Literaturzeitung
TOTC Tyndale
Old Testament Commentaries
TQ Theologische
Quartalschrift
Tr./tr. translator
TWAT G.
J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren, Hrsg.,
Theologisches Worterbuch zum Ahem
Testament,
8 Bande
TWOT R.
L. Harris, G. L. Archer, and B. K.
Waltke, ed., Theological Wordbook of the
Old Testament,
2 vols.
TynBul Tyndale
Bulletin
xvii
UF Ugarit-Forschungen
Ug Ugaritica
UT Cyrus
H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook, 3 vols.
VT Vetus
Testamentum
VTSup Vetus
Testamentum, Supplements
WBC Word
Biblical Commentary
WMANT Wissenschaftliche
Monographien zu:m
Alten and Neuen Testament
ZAW Zeitschrift
fur die alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft
ZTK Zeitschrift
fur Theologie and Kirche
xviii
CHAPTER ONE
AN EXAMINATION OF THE
ISSUES
Introduction
The main issue of this dissertation is the topic of the
innocent
sufferer/suffering as
it appears in the book of Proverbs. It will be my
purpose to identify the
various proverbs that refer to or imply this issue and
categorize them in
their collections according to subject matter and literary
form.
To the best of my knowledge, a study of this topic has
never been
undertaken at this
level.1 Analyses of the innocent sufferer or righteous
suffering have
frequently focused on other portions of the OT such as Job,
Qoheleth, Jeremiah or
Habakkuk, and that is appropriate. However, there
are certain assumptions
held by scholarship that exclude the book of Pro-
verbs from this
discussion. Part of this dissertation will examine these
assumptions and show
why Proverbs should be given its proper place in the
Biblical treatment of
this subject.
In order to begin the discussion of these assumptions the
first issue
to address is that of
theodicy. We will briefly define the term and discuss
how the matter is
expressed in Job and Qoheleth, in keeping with the
classification of these
two books as wisdom literature. This discussion may
1 There are studies which
are similar; note J. A. Gladson, "Retribu-
tive
Paradoxes in Proverbs 10-29" (Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1978),
and
K. T. Kleinknecht, Der leidende
Gerechtfertigte (
Mohr
[Paul Siebeck], 1984). The former author takes a different approach to
the
topic than I do, while the latter hardly mentions Proverbs at all.
1
seem to cover ground
that is already very familiar but it is important for
this study in relation
to the topic of the dissertation.
The second major section of the first chapter will analyze
innocent
suffering in the
literature of Mesopotamia and
tention that the
documents recovered to date do not show a willingness to
place the blame for
suffering on anyone but the individual involved, and the
reason for the
suffering is almost always sin.
At the end of chapter 1 there will be comparisons and
contrasts of
Mesopotamian and
Egyptian culture as expressed by the pertinent primary
literature on
suffering. These will serve as a basis of comparison in chap-
ter 2 with the
literature of
the topic of suffering.
Chapter 2 will examine the assumptions of scholarship to
discern
why the book of Proverbs
has been left out of studies of innocent suffering. I
will argue that the
exclusion of Proverbs from these studies is due pri-
marily to the
classification of Proverbs as conventional wisdom, with Job
and Qoheleth reacting against
the perceived superficial positions of con-
ventional wisdom.
The practice of placing Job and Qoheleth in opposition to
Proverbs
arises partly as a
result of some inadequate views of order and retribution.
Until recently it was
virtually a given among scholars to equate the world
view in Proverbs with
the Egyptian concept of ma'at. This
is now in
question and, in my
opinion, inaccurate. It was also thought that Proverbs
expressed a world view
that held a doctrine of retribution tied to an "act-
2
consequence"
relationship. This is also in need of revision, as the study will
show.
After these discussions, I will set forth suggestions for
viewing the
innocent
sufferer/suffering in Proverbs. The first thesis is that there are
many proverbs that show
an awareness of an innocent sufferer/suffering.
This should come as no
great surprise, but the fact is that it has never been
explored in any depth.
The second thesis is that the assertion that Job and
Qoheleth stand in
opposition or contrast to the wisdom of Proverbs needs
revision.
I.
The Issue of Theodicy
The discussion here will focus on defining theodicy and
exploring
some of the issues this
term implies. The definition of Max Weber will be
evaluated and shown why
it is not an acceptable working definition for this
study. Then I will
examine the four elements of theodicy suggested by
Wolfram von Soden which
show the conditions that must be present for
theodicy to occur. The
last part of this section will be a very brief look at the
OT books which contain
wisdom literature.
A. Definition
Theodicy is a term popularized in Essais de theodicee (1710) by
the German philosopher
G. W. Leibniz.2 It is an attempt to defend divine
2 L.
ed.
P. Wiener, 4 vols. (New York: Scribner, 1973), 4.378-379. The term "theo-
dicy"
was known before this in Leibniz’ earlier work but it gained more
widespread
exposure through this essay.
3
justice in the face of
aberrant phenomena that appear to indicate the deity's
indifference or
hostility toward virtuous people.3 The problems of evil and
suffering may be solved
philosophically for any theological system if a
theodicy is successful,
since it will show that the existence of suffering is
not incompatible with
the belief that a moral deity created the world and
has sovereignty over
it. In other words, a theodicy seeks to reconcile con-
tradictions within a
theological system by explaining why things happen as
they do.4
Another approach to the discussion of this issue is to
redefine
theodicy. This is the
approach of German sociologist Max Weber, who
referred to any
situation of inexplicable or unmerited suffering as a
theodicy problem, and
said theodicy itself was any rationale for explaining
suffering.5
While this broader definition may have some value in allow-
ing for a comparison
across a wider range of religious experiences,6 in
my opinion it will not
serve in the present study. The reason is that it
"beheads" the
word theodicy by removing God (or a god) from the equation.
While this might be
acceptable for some modern philosophical systems it is
3 James L. Crenshaw,
"Theodicy," ABD, 6.444.
4 John S. Feinberg,
"Theodicy," in Evangelical
Dictionary of Theo-
logy, ed. Walter A.
Elwell (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984), 1083; in more detail
idem,
The Many Faces of Evil (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1994); and in
general
from the perspective of several different cultures, David Parkin,
ed.,
The Anthropology of Evil (Oxford:
Blackwell, 1984).
5 Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (Boston:
Beacon, 1963), 112-
115,
138-150.
6 Gerald L. Mattingly,
"The Pious Sufferer:
tional
Theodicy and Job's Counselors," in The
Bible in the Light of Cunei-
form Literature, ed. W. W.
Hallo, B. W. Jones, and G. L. Mattingly
(Lewiston,
New York: Mellen, 1990), 313.
4
clearly inappropriate for any discussion of the cultures and religions of the
ANE, since religion was
an extremely important part of society.7 The
result of this, as I
intend to show, is that a true theodicy is not found in
either Egyptian or
Sumero-Babylonian literature. It is only in the literature
of ancient
Isaiah.8
The next question to be dealt with is that of the
conditions required for
the question of theodicy
to be raised. Wolfram von Soden has listed four
basic elements that
must be present:
1. a clear sense of right and wrong, so that a sufferer
could
reasonably claim to be suffering undeservedly;
2. significant individual worth, so that personal suffering
must be
justified;
3. minimal competition within the godhead or pantheon, so
that
suffering cannot be blamed on one deity due to human
loyalty to
another; and
4. a limited view of judgment in the afterlife.9
7 R. E. Clements, "
The World of
Ancient
University
Press, 1989), 9; James K. Hoffmeier, "Egyptians," in Peoples of
the Old
Testament World,
ed. A. J. Hoerth, G. L. Mattingly, and E. M.
Yamauchi
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994), 283, who cites Herodotus' words
regarding
the Egyptians being the most religious people on earth; and
Gladson,
"Retributive Paradoxes," 100, who calls attention to the
"pervasive
religiosity"
in Mesopotamian thought.
8 See Isaiah 40:27, where
the question is implicitly posed.
9 Adapted from W. von
Soden, "Das Fragen Nach der Gerechtigkeit
Gottes
im Alten Orient," MDOG 96
(1965): 41-59.
5
If any of these four
elements is lacking, the tension which generally leads
to a theodicy can be
relieved. This is because the absence of any one of these
components can negate
or qualify the principle of equitable or just retri-
bution. The presence of
these four factors in any given situation may not
answer the question of
suffering but it allows the deity to be absolved of
responsibility and
therefore accusations of divine injustice are no longer
appropriate.10
B. OT Books Related to Theodicy
Not surprisingly, the book which most often comes
to mind in
discussions of innocent
suffering in the OT is the book of Job. A vast
amount of literature
exists on this topic, far too much to summarize here.
Other books which refer
to this theme are Ecclesiastes (or Qoheleth),
certain psalms
(especially 37, 49, 73), Isaiah, Jeremiah and Habakkuk.11
While there are quite a
few other scattered references to pain, suffering,
sickness, etc. in the
OT, I will limit the study to those passages in the
Wisdom books which
contribute to the current topic.
In relation to the topic of theodicy one of the most common
ways to
view the wisdom corpus
of the OT is to see Job and Qoheleth reacting
against the strict
dogmatism of Proverbs regarding the doctrine of retri-
bution. This will be
taken up in some detail in chapter two, but I mention it
now in order to form a
backdrop to the later discussion on the literature of
10 John H. Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural
Con-
text, rev. (Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 1990), 180.
11 See James L. Crenshaw,
ed., Theodicy in the Old Testament
(Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1983), for discussion of many of these texts. Also
idem,
"Theodicy," ABD, 6.445-446.
6
the ANE. The following discussion of Job and Qoheleth will be specifically
focused on how they
deal with the issue of theodicy.
1. Job
Job's claim to innocent suffering went against
the con-
ventions of virtually
every religious system in the ANE. The response of the
three friends and Elihu
to Job's assertions of innocence shows their
disagreement and
disapproval of Job in his protestations of unmerited
suffering.
In the discussion which follows I will refrain from matters
of dating,
structure, and the
like. For these background issues the commentaries of
Hartley,12
Clines,13 Rowley14 and Habel15 will be
sufficient.
The issue of theodicy as expressed in the book of Job is
very complex,
with a huge amount of
secondary literature that can only be summarized
here. The topic will be
analyzed in Job by literary division.
a. The Prologue
In the first two chapters the narrator
goes to great
lengths to portray Job
as a man of integrity, one completely undeserving of
all the woes that
befall him, bringing Job's experience into conflict with the
doctrine of
retribution, which is assumed to lie behind the book. It is
surprising that two of
Job's statements in the prose introduction go counter
12 John E. Hartley, The Book of Job, NICOT (
mans,
1988).
13 David J. A. Clines, Job 1-20, WBC vol. 17 (Dallas: Word,
1989).
14 H. H. Rowley, Job, NCBC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1980).
15 Norman C. Habel, The Book of Job, OTL (
ster,
1985).
7
to the
reward/retribution theologoumenon
that those who fear God are
guaranteed divine
blessing and protection from misfortune and tragedy.16
First, in 1:21 Job
states that Yahweh gives blessings to the righteous and
may take them away;
second, in 2:10 he says that wellbeing (bOF)
may
attend the life of
those who fear God or they may suffer misfortune (frA).
The latter statement
comes in reaction to his wife's charge to "curse God
and die" (2:9). In
this she apparently believes that the righteous will pros-
per and the wicked will
suffer.17 Since Yahweh has allowed the righteous
Job to suffer, Yahweh
is no longer worthy of the adoration and worship
which Job gives. She
places the blame for Job's misfortunes directly on
God. One might have expected
a theodicy, a justification of God here, but
Job does not attempt to
acquit God of the responsibility for his tragedies.
Job's reaction is to
affirm his loyalty to Yahweh.18
Job's declaration can be viewed at two levels. When viewed
"from
above," it
vindicates God's confidence in Job against the Satan's accusa-
tions (1:9-11; 2:4-5).
However, when it is viewed "from below," i. e., from a
standpoint which has no
knowledge of the conversations which took place
in the heavenly court,
it is a stunning admission of the fact of innocent
suffering, since not
even the righteous are guaranteed safety from life's
misfortunes and
tragedies.19
16 E. W. Nicholson,
"The Limits of Theodicy as a Theme of the Book of
Job,"
in Wisdom in Ancient
Williamson
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 72.
17 Clines, Job 1-20, 51.
18 Nicholson, “Limits,” 72;
Hartley, Job, 84.
19 Nicholson,
"Limits," 72.
8
b.
The Dialogue
According to Nicholson the declaration
at the cli-
max of the prologue in
2:10 sets the agenda for the rest of the book.20 In the
discussion of the
problem of suffering in the poetical dialogue issues of
divine justice would be
shown to give meaning to life in the midst of
suffering. As will be
argued below, those in surrounding cultures believed
that suffering was
almost invariably due to the sin of the sufferer, not the
fault of some deity.
This is essentially what Job's three friends are
claiming, especially
Eliphaz (chs. 4-5), who offers three explanations for
Job's predicament.
These three theodicies are expounded by Eliphaz and
the other human
speakers but never added to. Thus Nicholson sees
Eliphaz' first speech
as more or less "programmatic"21 for the rest of the
following dialogue
between Job and the three counsellors:
1. No innocent person has ever perished (4:7-8).
This pronouncement is intended to encourage Job, in the
sense that
he needs to have
patience and endurance. This axiom is based on a con-
ditional assumption,
viz., if he is innocent then he will not die. It is an
affirmation of the
doctrine of retribution but does not explain Job's suffer-
ing, since Job's
integrity is not being questioned yet,
2. All human beings are sinners (4:18-19).
Since God charges his angels with error how can Job believe
that
mankind is without
fault? If Job is not without fault, then he should not
20 "Limits," 73.
21 "Limits," 74.
9
expect to be exempt
from punishment. This view is met very clearly in
Sumero-Babylonian
literature, e. g. "Man and His God," addressed below
under II.A.1.
3. God chastens people with the intent to correct
shortcomings (5:17-
27).
This aspect of the theodicy is not taken up again until the
speeches of
Elihu (33:19-28;
34:31-37; 36:7-13, 15-16), but the previous two elements are
frequently discussed
with increasing fervor and intensity.22
Without a doubt, the principles of retribution and reward
are
affirmed time and again
in other places in the OT, just as the three friends
do, but their primary
mistake was in the misapplication of these principles
to Job's particular
situation.23
c. The Divine Speeches
The logical place in the book of Job to
seek answers
to the problem of
innocent suffering is in the divine speeches. There is no
shortage of material
from which to draw opinions, so the discussions here
must be limited to some
of the more meaningful suggestions.
Unfortunately, there is no unanimous opinion on how the
speeches of
Yahweh are to be viewed
in relation to the issue of theodicy. At one extreme
of the spectrum are those
who claim the speeches ignore Job's complaints
of injustice and show
Yahweh to be a "blustering deity" who humiliates Job
22 Nicholson,
"Limits," 74. Discussing this in detail takes us too far
from
the primary topic; for a brief treatment see Nicholson, "Limits,"
74-79.
23 Michael L.
van,
1995), 173. One of the lessons Job learned is that serving God cannot
always
be reduced to a mathematical formula, as if trouble and tragedy
could
never happen in the life of a God-fearer (cf. 1:2).
10
into submission.24
At the opposite extreme are those who attempt to solve
the problem of innocent
suffering by dissolving it. According to this view,
the world is not
founded on the retribution principle whereby righteousness
is rewarded and
wickedness is punished. This view portrays the world as
"amoral" and
thus it is absurd to expect a fate which morally corresponds to
one's deeds.25
Both of these views are unsatisfactory. The first view
portrays God as
an incompetent deity
who is incapable of answering Job's accusations of
misgoverning the world.
Because Yahweh has been called into account
and found wanting, Job
is bullied into submission. The author therefore is
declaring Job's case
unanswerable, and Yahweh stands guilty as charged.
The main problem with
this view, in my opinion, is that it shows God to be
immoral, petty and
abusive.26 Job's righteousness is of no value to God,
who uses and
manipulates Job to prove a point. Then in the concluding
prose passage this same
God restores Job to wellbeing once the point has
been made.27
This seems hardly credible or likely.
The second view suffers from the problem of Job's previous
rejection
24 E. g., J. L. Crenshaw,
"The Shift from Theodicy to Anthropodicy,"
in
Theodicy in the Old Testament, ed. J.
L. Crenshaw (
Fortress,
1983), 9; and D. Robertson, The Old
Testament and the Literary
Critic
(Philadelphiaa,;Fortress, 1977), 48-50.
25 Matitiahu Tsevat,
"The Meaning of the Book of Job," HUCA
37
(1966):
73-106; and more recently Habel, Job,
65, 534-535.
26 Cf. Nicholson,
"Limits," 80.
27 See Habel, Job, 533, and Nicholson,
"Limits," 80, for a critique of
this
position, which arises from a naive identification with Job on the part
of
the commentators.
11
of the dogmatization of
the reward/retribution doctrine. It seems unneces-
sary for Yahweh to
simply endorse what Job has already maintained all
along, especially since
the divine speeches censure Job.28 However,
according to some,
Yahweh's speeches are not intended to humiliate but to
educate.29
Job is enlightened and comes away with knowledge that he had
not previously
possessed as a result of the divine speeches.30
Nicholson's view of theodicy in relation to Yahweh's speeches
is
based on the ANE Chaoskampf also reflected in Psalms and
Isaiah,31
where God's primeval
victory over chaos is referred to or invoked in
contexts in which chaos
seems to persist.32 His premise is that chaos,
represented by
Leviathan, the Sea, or Rahab, etc. has been confined but not
eliminated.33
This, for Nicholson, raises the possibility that the enemy's
defeat may be reversed
and it revives all the anxiety that goes with this idea.
The claim is that these
texts acknowledge the "jarring disjunction between
present experience and
belief in God's absolute sovereignty."34 It is only
due to God's
intervention and vigilance that disaster is prevented. Creation
28 Nicholson,
"Limits," 79.
29 E. g., F. I. Andersen, Job: An Introduction and Commentary,
TOTC
(Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1976), 269.
30 Note the emphasis on the
use of the root fdy in Job's confession in
42:1-6,
and the comments of Habel, Job,
578-580.
31 Pss 74:12-17;
89:10-13[9-12]; Isa 51:9-11; cf. Job 38:8-11; 40:25-
41:26[41:1-34].
32 Nicholson,
"Limits," 80; building on the studies of Jon D. Leven-
son,
Creation and the Persistence of Evil
(
1988),
and John Day, God's Conflict with the
Dragon and the Sea (
bridge:
33 Nicholson,
"Limits," 81.
34 Levenson, Creation, 24.
12
endures because God has
pledged it so (the Noahic covenant), and com-
pelled obeisance toward
the great adversary (Leviathan, the Sea, Rahab,
etc.).35
To react briefly to Nicholson's position, it must be
pointed out that the
passages cited do not
always contain a reference to a "confined" or "per-
sistent" chaos
other than people (as opposed to primordial forces or
creatures). In other
words, the breakdown of society enumerated in Ps 74,
for example, is not due
to the continued existence and activity of Leviathan,
who was crushed and its
body parts fed to the desert creatures (Ps 74:13-14),
making it difficult to
see how it could continue to cause chaos. The enemy
(74:18) is identified
as "foolish people," and those who do violence to the
oppressed, the poor and
needy (74:20-21). Animal symbols are prominent in
74:19, with Yahweh's
enemy symbolized by wild beasts and the covenant
people symbolized by a
dove. This is hardly the same thing as Job, or
another human being,
feeling anxiety over threats from primordial
creatures. The symbolic
language of Ps 74 serves to express realities of life
in the language of
human imagination in the form of mythical images.36
A similar observation
can be made regarding Ps 89:10-13[9-12] where Rahab
is crushed. The use of
the Canaanite myth is to emphasize Yahweh's vic-
tory over Rahab in the
past, and forms a basis on which to call on Yahweh
to assert control over
present circumstances.37 It is also important to note
35 Nicholson,
"Limits." 81; Levenson, Creation,
17.
36 Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 51-100, WBC vol. 20 (Dallas:
Word, 1990),
254-255.
37 J. Day, God's Conflict, 26.
13
that the
"chaos" brought upon
45]), even though it is
possible that this is an instance of double agency, with
Yahweh allowing the
forces of chaos to have temporary domination.38
This may be the case,
but this psalm places the responsibility for
"chaos"
solely on Yahweh. A similar observation may be made regarding
the Satan and Job's
tragedies. Yahweh never blames the Satan in his
speeches, accepting full
responsibility for the governance of the world, and
Job's misfortunes along
with it.
This sense of agency is the main problem with Nicholson's
view, in
my opinion. One of the
emphases in Yahweh's speeches is divine control
over nature. In Job
38:8-11 Yahweh has the Sea firmly under control with
fixed limits and
boundaries, and Job can no more control the Sea than he
could bind Pleiades or
loose the cords of Orion (38:31). Leviathan, a
frighteningly powerful
creature compared to Job, is simply one of Yah-
weh's pets
(40:29[41:5]) and numbered among several other phenomena
from the natural world
seen as part of Yahweh's creation.39
Thus I cannot agree with Nicholson and Levenson that the
presence
of chaos in the world
indicates a failure on the part of God,40 especially
when the divine
speeches show these natural forces and amazing creatures
to be directly under
Yahweh's control. Yahweh's defense of the design of
38 Cf. Day, God's Conflict, 26, n. 70.
39 See Ps 104:25-26, where
the vast sea is the playground for Levia-
than,
which Levenson (Creation, 24)
humorously refers to as God's "rubber
duckey."
40 Nicholson,
"Limits," 81; Levenson, Creation,
24.
14
the cosmos takes, place
in a legal setting,41 keeping continuity with the
judicial setting of the
dialogue.42 Many studies have shown the impor-
tance of the legal
metaphor for understanding the theology of the book,43
and in my opinion it is
the best way to understand the unfolding argument
of the dialogue and the
resultant divine speeches, as well as the theology
behind the speeches.
Job had appealed to God to answer him in a lawsuit
and the two divine
speeches do just that. The details of this are too complex
to enter into the discussion
here and Scholnick has done this already.44
Scholnick's study
places the entire book in the legal genre but it is not
necessary to limit this
book to a single literary form. It is probably more
accurate to see several
different literary forms within the book, and
recognize it as a
masterful blending of genres.45 The book of Job is better
41Sylvia
H. Scholnick, "Poetry in the Courtroom: Job 38-41," in Direc-
tions in Hebrew
Poetry,
ed. E. Follis (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987), 186.
42 See B. Gemser, "The
Rib- or Controversy-Pattern in Hebrew Men-
tality,"
in Wisdom in Israel and in the Ancient
Near East, ed. M. Noth and
D.
W. Thomas, VTSup 3 (Leiden: Brill, 1969), 134-135; J. Limburg, "The
Lawsuit
of God in the Eighth Century Prophets" (Th.D. thesis,
Theological
Seminary in
ed.
(Garden City:; Doubleday & Co., 1973), lxxi; H. Richter, Studien zu Hiob
(Berlin:
Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1959); and C. Westermann, Der
Aufbau des
Buches Hiob (Tubingen:
J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1956).
43 E. g., Richter, Studien zu Hiob, and more recently S. H.
Scholnick,
"Lawsuit
Drama in the Book of Job" (Ph.D. diss.,
1975);
G. Many, "Der Rechtsstreit mit Gott (Rib) im Hiobbuch" (Diss. Kath.-
theol.
Fakultat der Ludwig-Maximilian Universitat,
Dick,
"Job 31: A Form-critical Study" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity,
1977); and J. J. M. Roberts, "Job's Summons to Yahweh: The
Exploitation
of a Legal Metaphor," RQ 16 (1973): 159-165.
44 Scholnick, "Poetry
in the Courtroom," 185-204.
45 See Hartley, Job, 37-43.
15
classified sui generis.46
More to the point, the Yahweh speeches do not deny innocent
suffer-
ing. In the divine
speeches Job is assumed to be innocent but unin-
formed.47 He
has doubted both the plan48 (38:2) and justice49 (40:8)
of
Yahweh's universe. In
seeing a legal background as the setting for the
divine speeches in
which Yahweh is shown to be both Owner and King of
the world, I believe we
come closer to their true intent. Job is informed of
Yahweh's right of
ownership due to his role as Creator, and administra-
tion of the world is
Yahweh's right by reason of his role as King.
In the divine speeches Job is shown the paradoxes of the
cosmic
creation which operate
under Yahweh's control and by his design.50
46 James L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction
(Atlanta:
John Knox, 1981), 120; and Pope, Job,
xxxi.
47 The reverse is usually
true in Sumero-Babylonian literature, with
sufferers
assumed to be ignorant of their offenses but not innocent. This
will
be shown in more detail below in the discussion of that literature.
48 "Plan" here is
hcAfe also
"design." Yahweh's first speech answers
the
charge of a disorderly world, see S. Scholnick, "Poetry in the Court-
room,"
185-186. This Hebrew word is used in the creation poetry of Isa 40:13
to
speak of God's design for the universe. It is used to refer to the divine
plan
for mankind in Isa 5:19; 46:10; Jer 32:19; 49:20; 50:45; Mic 4:12; Ps
33:11;
73:24; 106:13; 107:11; Prov 19:21. For a chart of Job's doubts and
Yahweh's
responses see Habel, Job, 530-532.
49 "Justice" FPAw;mi is an important
term in the book, which is replete
with
legal terminology, see S. Scholnick, "The Meaning of Mispat in the
Book
of Job," JBL 101 (1982):
521-529; and in more detail her Lawsuit
Dra-
ma. Job had
accused God of misgoverning the world and turning justice
upside
down. Thus Yahweh challenged Job to match his ability to control
evil
in 40:9-14.
50 See Habel, Job, 534-535. In my opinion Habel's
discussion of the
Yahweh
speeches is an excellent treatment, see 526-535; cf. also Hartley,
Job, 515-517.
16
There is no failure on
the part of God, but an assertion that Yahweh
governs the cosmos by
means which include the law of reward and
retribution but also by
standards which go beyond its mechanical
application.51
Job must recognize his creaturely limitations, and realize
that he is not in a
position to doubt Yahweh's orderly design of the world,
nor his just governance
of it.52 In my opinion the speeches of Yahweh
demonstrate just the
opposite of Nicholson's view--viz., rather than show-
ing Yahweh to be a
failure at controlling the forces of nature, he is in
sovereign control over
all.
d. The Epilogue
The epilogue of this book has no direct
bearing on
the issue of theodicy
but it is extremely problematic in relation to this topic
except for those who
view it as a reaffirmation of the doctrine of reward and
retribution. Job is
restored to health and prosperity, seemingly as a
validation of the dogma
that teaches that the righteous will be rewarded.53
This is all the more surprising
when it seems that the retribution dogma
had been marginalized,
or as was shown above, to be only one of many
factors in God's
governance of the world.
In 42:12a (cf. 8:7) we are told that Yahweh blessed the
latter part
(tyriHExa) of Job's life more than the first
(tywixre). Yet this does
not neces-
sarily mean that this
was a reward for his perseverance, as Hartley says:
51 Cf. Habel, Job, 535.
52 For a discussion on the
difference in perspectives and perceptions
in
the book see Stuart Lasine, "Bird's-Eye and Worm's-Eye Views of Justice
in
the Book of Job," JSOT 42
(1988): 29-53.
53 Clines, Job 1-20, xlvii.
17
the doubling of
Job's estate does not mean that he received a bountiful
reward for the endurance of undeserved
affliction, but rather that
Yahweh freely and abundantly blessed
him. The blessing proves that
Yahweh is a life-giving God, not a
capricious deity who takes
pleasure in the suffering of those who
fear him. In his sovereign
design he may permit a faithful
servant to suffer ill-fortune for a
season, but in due time he will bring
total healing.54
The retraction55
of the lawsuit by Job (42:6) and his intercession for the
three friends (42:8,
10) led to the doubling of his former wealth by Yahweh,
and abundant blessings
are poured out on him. Had Yahweh been com-
mitted to a strict
dogma of retribution the wealth given to Job would have
equaled the amounts
listed in 1:2-3 rather than doubled.
2. Qoheleth
There
may be less agreement regarding the interpreta-
tion, message and
meaning of this book than any other in the Hebrew
Bible.56
Though higher-critical issues may influence the interpretation of
the various passages
under consideration, the discussion will be limited to
the issue of theodicy.57
This issue has been ably dealt with in Michael V.
54 Hartley, Job, 540.
55 The translation of sxm is complicated
by the lack of an object. If
the
legal framework of the book is accepted there may be a clue to the object
of
the verb in 31:13, where Job claims that he did not "dismiss/reject the
case
(FPAw;mi)" of a slave. The implied object of sxm in 42:6 would
be Job's
case
against God, which he "dismisses/retracts," cf. Scholnick, Lawsuit
Drama, 303.
56 In the view of R.
Gordis, Poets. Prophets and Sages (
Song of Solomon (Dallas: Word,
1991), 19, 23.
57 For those interested in
these background issues see, e. g., R. E.
Murphy,
Ecclesiastes, WBC vol. 23a (Dallas:
Word, 1992), and his biblio-
graphies;
also G. S. Ogden, Qoheleth
(Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987); and J.
18
Fox's work on Qoheleth58
and to some extent I follow his lead. However,
the approach taken here
will be to analyze specific passages, in contrast to
Fox, who treats the
issue topically.
The passages in Qoheleth which specifically make reference
to
injustices going
uncorrected are 3:16-17; 4:1-3; 6:1-9; 7:15-18; and 8:9-9:12.59
a. 3:16-17
These verses are set within a pericope
which
extends through 3:22.60
The main topic is the miscarriage of justice in
society, a situation
which does not evoke a demand for fair treatment in the
courts, or to have
dishonest judges removed. This generalized observation
of one human's
injustice to another will be rectified somehow at an
unspecified time and
place,61 apparently saying that God has, as it were,
L.
Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes, OTL
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987), al-
though
his personal skepticism (53) must be taken into account in assess-
ing
his interpretation of the text.
58 Michael V. Fox, Qohelet and His Contradictions, JSOTSS
71 (Shef-
field:
Almond, 1989), 121-150, though not without reservations. Fox is overly
influenced
by A. Camus in his understanding of the book. See the brief
assessment,
both positive and negative, by Duane A. Garrett, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes.
Song of Songs,
NAC vol. 14 (Nashville: Broadman, 1993), 275-
277, 283.
59 Another passage which
might be treated in this connection is 10:5-
14,
but see Murphy, Ecclesiastes,
102-103, and Fox, Qohelet, 124-125;
both of
whom
assert that this passage teaches that the consequences of the deeds
listed
are a danger but not a certainty. The results are portrayed as unex-
pected,
not as absolute causal linkages.
60 Murphy, Ecclesiastes, 31; R. N. Whybray, Ecclesiastes, NCBC
(London:
Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1989), 76-81; J. A. Loader, Ecclesias-
tes: A Practical
Commentary,
tr. J. Vriend (
1986),
42-47.
61 Murphy, Ecclesiastes, 36.
19
"a time to judge
and a time to refrain from judging" (cf. 3:2-8 and 8:10-
13).62 The
Hebrew text of 3:17 says:
Myhilox<hA
FPow;yi fwArAhA-tx,v; qyDica.ha-tx, yBiliB; ynixE yTir;maxA
:MwA hW,fEm.aha
lfav; Cp,He-lkAl; tfe-yKi
This raises the
question of the meaning of "there" (MWA).
Garrett holds to an
eschatological usage
(cf. Ps 14:5a), with "there" being shorthand for the
time and place of
eschatological judgment (cf. Zeph 1:14) or referring to
Sheol, in which case
the ideas of the grave and judgment have been com-
bined.63
This deferment of divine judgment till the indefinite
future makes it
a foregone conclusion,
then, that distortions of justice are a fact of life,64
and mankind's only
choice is to simply make the best of it (3:22).65 There is
no encouragement to
work for justice or to strive against legal, oppression.
Social abuses are
unalterable realities.
b. 4:1-3
Many commentators correctly connect
these ver-
ses with the flow of
thought begun in chapter 3.66 Human oppression is
62 Whybray, Ecclesiastes, 77-78.
63 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 302-303. He
notes a related usage
in
Job 3:17-19 where "there" refers to the grave, an impartial judge
that
treats
the mighty and the weak alike, see 303, n. 86, and cf. Robert Gordis,
Koheleth--the
Man and His World (
nary
of
64 Fox, Qohelet, 141.
65 Whybray, Ecclesiastes, 77-78.
66 E. g., Murphy (Ecclesiastes, 28-39) treats 3:1-4:6 as
the overall unit,
20
the subject of these
verses, as indicated by the three distinct nuances of the
root qwf: the first as the abstract notion of
oppression, the second as the
objects of this
villainy ("the oppressed"), and the third as, those who are
involved in carrying
out the actions ("oppressors").67 The repetition of the
phrase MHenam; Mh,lA Nyxev; shows how utterly
hopeless the lot of the oppressed
is.68 The
threefold repetition of the root qwf
and the double use of the
statement regarding the
lack of comfort produce an effect of emotional
intensity which is rare
for Qoheleth.69
The writer is not saying that one is better off dead than
alive, but that
death is preferable to
a life made miserable by oppression, since it frees
from trouble. A similar
thought can be found in Sir 41:2 (NRSV):
O death, how welcome is your sentence
to one who is needy and
failing in strength,
worn down by age and anxious about
everything;
to one who is contrary, and
has lost all patience!70
This view is consistent with the general wisdom teaching
concerning
"life," which
in the book of Proverbs is not equated with bare existence.
while
Crenshaw (Ecclesiastes, 101-107) sees
3:16-4:3 as a unit of thought.
67 A. Lauha, Kohelet, BKAT 19 (Neukirchen-Vluyn:
Neukirchener
Verlag,
1978), 81; cf. Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes,
105, and Whybray, Ecclesias-
tes, 81.
68 Loader, Ecclesiastes, 47. See Murphy, Ecclesiastes, 37-38, and
Crenshaw,
Ecclesiastes, 105, for arguments that
the repetition is not a gloss
and
should therefore be retained.
69 According to Whybray, Ecclesiastes, 81.
70 Murphy (Ecclesiastes, 38) observes that the
thought of Qoh 4:2-3 is
close
in spirit to Job 3 and Jer 20:14-18.
21
Those who were poor (e.
g. Prov 14:20; 18:23; 19:4, 7) and those who were
oppressed by the
powerful (e. g. Prov 28:15-16) were not regarded as posses-
sing "life"
in the sense of the fullness of life, which was the goal and reward
of those who followed
the counsels of wisdom.71
Qoheleth laments the frequent occurrence of oppression and
unjust
treatment, thus he is
aware of innocent suffering. But the similar under-
standing of
"life" to that of Proverbs shows that his thought here is not
unique.
In Qoheleth's reflections on injustice death is a prominent
feature.
In 3:16-17 death
appears as the area of hope for the oppressed; it is "there"
that God judges the
oppressor. Here death is simply the better alternative to
a life of oppression.
It is not surprising that in 3:18-22, which comes
between these two
texts, the subject is death itself.72
c. 6:1-9
This part of chapter 6 contains an
extended reflec-
tion on the person who
is prevented from enjoying all his possessions. The
overall point seems to
be that it would be better not to have riches than to
have to give them over
to a stranger to enjoy. The thought of this passage is
part of the larger
context begun in 5:9[10] discussing the relative value of
possessions.73
The specific statement regarding innocent suffering very
pointedly
71 E. g. Prov 3:2, 22;
4:22; 16:22. See Whybray, Ecclesiastes,
81-82.
72 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 306.
73 See Murphy, Ecclesiastes, 49, who considers the
broad context to
consist
of 4:17[5:1]-6:9, and breaks it down as an instruction on conduct
associated
with the cult in 4:17-5:6[5:1-7], an instruction on officials in 5:7-
8[8-9]
and on possessions in 5:9[5:10]-6:9.
22
fixing the
responsibility on God is found in 6:2.74 Qoheleth's observation
may refer back to a
similar idea in 5:12-13[13-14], and enlarge on it some-
what. In these verses
riches are shown to be of dubious value because of the
harm possessions might
bring to the owner. In the lines which follow,
Qoheleth's meaning is
made clear. Wealth lost through some misfortune,
be it natural
catastrophe or of human cause (theft, vandalism, etc.) means
that all the time and
toil invested to gain the wealth went for nought. All
this was costly to the
owner but did not profit him in the end.75 Following
this is a statement
echoed in other places in the Hebrew Bible, notably Job
1:21; Ps 139:15; see
also Sir 40:1. The idea expressed in the modern dictum
"You can't take it
with you" in regard to wealth is similar to a theme
prominent in Ps 49.76
In 6:2 a slightly different situation is pictured. The
wealth is not seen
as lost so that a son,
a rightful heir is deprived, but that it is taken by a
stranger.77 This
would cause distress since the owner is denied not only
the enjoyment of his
possessions but also the satisfaction of seeing his
accumulated wealth
passed on to his son, thereby keeping it in the family.
This would have touched
a raw nerve among some within the wisdom
74 Fox, Qohelet, 219.
75 Loader, Ecclesiastes, 64.
76 Murphy, Ecclesiastes, 52; and note Loader's
pointed comment:
"There
are no pockets in a shroud," Ecclesiastes,
65.
77 It is probably useless
to attempt to identify the stranger beyond that
of
an unknown person who is not a family member. The point may be only
that
someone is enjoying the wealth who has no legitimate claim to it, cf.
Whybray,
Ecclesiastes, 104, and Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes, 126.
23
tradition, according to
Ogden.78 Material success and tangible posses-
sions were viewed as
evidence of the divine blessing which was the
consequence of living a
life pleasing to God (Prov 13:21, 25; cf. Deut 8:10).
Here Qoheleth casts
doubt on this belief by suggesting that a wealthy person
may not be allowed to
derive any pleasure from material possessions, thus
inferring an anomaly in
human experience much like Job's, or that the
fate of a wise man in
this situation is little different from that of a fool.
Qoheleth's comment on
this is like that on many other sad circumstances:
"This is
meaningless, a grievous evil."
d. 7:15-18
The traditional view of the retribution
dogma is
contradicted here in
Qoheleth's experience. He claims to have seen the
righteous one (qyDica destroyed in his righteousness, while
the wicked one
(fwArA) lives long despite his wickedness. The
use of the particle wye
("there
is") may express
the fact that Qoheleth is aware that the righteous do not
always prosper and the
wicked do not always suffer. The exceptions in his
experience show that
the doctrine of retribution, one of the most funda-
mental principles of
wisdom literature, has its cases where the exact oppo-
site is true.79
The equation of prosperity with righteousness and suffering
with sin is far too
simplistic to apply to every circumstance.
Verses 16-18 have been misinterpreted at times to teach
that Qoheleth
advocates participation
in some kind of sin,80 with the advice not to be
78 Ogden, Qoheleth, 91.
79 Loader, Ecclesiastes, 87.
80 J. A. Loader, Polar Structures in the Book of Qohelet,
BZAW 152
(Berlin:
Walter de Gruyter, 1979), 48.
24
overly righteous or
overly evil. Some have asserted that these verses teach a
"golden
mean."81 This view, held by Delitzsch,82 Hertzberg,83
Gordis,84
etc. says that Qoheleth
was encouraging readers to follow an immoral
doctrine, that is, to
practice sin in moderation. However, this is a mis-
understanding, just as
it would be wrong to believe that Deut 27:24 ("Cursed
be he who slays his
neighbor in secret" RSV) approves of murdering a
neighbor publicly.85
A modern way to say a similar thing would be "Do not
be a fanatic."86
Crenshaw observes that 7:17 does not claim that sin in
moderation is
acceptable. The teaching is that sin in an individual's life
may be unavoidable, but
those who practice evil as a way of life are
destroyed by it.87
Thus Qoheleth is not dealing with the issue of personal
sins as such, but
rather, an attitude of life that seeks the benefits of long
life, prosperity and
personal happiness through strict observation of
religious and wisdom
principles. The affirmation of fearing God as the
81 According to Whybray, Ecclesiastes, 120. For an interpretation
of
these
verses which claims the warning here is against being self-righteous
and
pretentions to wisdom, see R. N. Whybray, "Qoheleth the Immoralist?
(Qoh
7:16-17)," in Israelite Wisdom:
Essays in Honor of Samuel Terrien, ed.
J.
G. Gammie et al. (New York: Scholars Press, 1978), 191-204. But against
this
see Fox, Qohelet, 233-235.
82 Franz Delitzsch, Commentary on the Song of Songs and Ecclesi-
astes, tr.
83 Hans Wilhelm Hertzberg, Der Prediger, KAT 17/4 (
Gerd
Mohr, 1963), 154.
84 Gordis, Koheleth, 265-266.
85 Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes, 141.
86 Garrett, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 323.
87 Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes, 140. We could also say
that it means that
we
should not let sin get out of hand. Just because sin is unavoidable does
not
necessarily mean it is uncontrollable.
25
advisable route in life is common to the wisdom literature, and shows the
contact of Qoheleth
with the conventional tenets of wisdom thought.
e. 8:9-9:12
In this larger unit 8:14 is part of
Qoheleth's reflec-
tion regarding the
reversal of the retribution dogma also seen in 9:11-12.88
The failure to bring
criminals to punishment is the general thrust of
8:9-13. Qoheleth
comments that the lack of swift justice leads to increased
scheming and evil plans
on the part of the wicked, then seems to affirm the
conventional wisdom
belief that in the end "it will go better with God-
fearing men" and
for those who do not fear God "it will not go well with
them, and their days
will not lengthen like a shadow." This affirmation of
faith in divine justice
seems to go directly against all the evidence Qoheleth
has cited. Living a
long life is indicative of happiness and divine blessing in
the wisdom tradition
(Prov 3:2, 16) and his admission of evidence to the
contrary combined with
the tension seen in 8:14 regarding retribution
shows that it is not
always possible to align the fact of suffering with the
simplistic claim that
divine justice distinguishes between the righteous and
the wicked.89
The conclusion to 9:1-12 affirms the arbitrary nature of
life from a
human perspective
rather than a divine point of view. Five examples taken
from different areas of
life (racing, war, livelihood, wealth, favor) show that
88 Garrett (Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 328) treats
8:9-9:1 as a section en-
titled
"On Theodicy," with 9:11-12 as transitional statements to another
section.
89 Cf. Murphy, Ecclesiastes, 85.
26
the optimistic view of
life presented by the retribution principle (the right-
eous will prosper or
succeed) must be moderated against a phony prosperity
piety, since regardless
of one's talents events beyond one's control may
determine the outcome
of a venture quite to the contrary of one's moral
character.90
Another way to state this in simpler terms is that it is diffi-
cult for one who holds
to a belief in a rigid principle of equitable retribution
to make all the facts
fit the theory.
To summarize, the treatment of the topic of theodicy in the
books of
Job and Qoheleth shows
the doctrine of retribution to be less than dogmatic.
The righteous do not always prosper and the wicked do not always suffer.
On top of this is the
problem of equitable suffering. The scale of suffering
does not always balance
with the degree of the sin, if one was committed.
Both books present
cases where exceptions are noted, thus removing the
stigma of divine
disfavor from those who were not prospering or enjoying
the blessings of God.
In his use of contradictions of conventional wisdom
Qoheleth loosens the
rigidity of conventional wisdom to come to terms with
empirical realities,.
For both Job and Qoheleth, Yahweh is given more respect and
credi-
bility than the gods of
other ancient societies, which often relegated the
relationship between
the god and the worshipper to superficial levels. This
frequently led to
supplicants attempting to cajole or manipulate the god or
goddess into blessing
them, or, at least, removing the negative situation.
Yahweh, on the other
hand, simply could not be manipulated. Good deeds
90 Fox (Qohelet, 260) says the passage does not
teach that, e. g., the
swift
never win, but that they do not necessarily
win.
27
and worship were not viewed as bargaining chips, and there was no
exchange of material
blessing for adoration. This was also asserted in the
Torah where
Qoheleth acknowledges
the justice of God as well as the mystery of God in
how justice is worked
out.92
II.
Suffering in the Literature of the Ancient Near East
This part of the study will focus on the attitudes or views
of suffering
displayed by some of
the more prominent documents from certain cultures
surrounding ancient
number of texts which
have been recovered it is possible to examine only a
sample of the
documents, which will, by and large, be representative of the
rest. In the analysis
of this topic I will discuss the literary works of the
ANE under two broad
categories, Mesopotamian literature and Egyptian
literature.
There is evidence for wisdom literature in
focus of this part of
the study will necessarily be limited to Egyptian and
Mesopotamian sources
since only
large amounts of this
kind of material. Most of the discussion which
91 See Deut 17:10.
92 Murphy, Ecclesiastes, lxvi.
93 See M. J. Dahood,
"Canaanite-Phoenician Influence in Qoheleth,''
Bib 33 (1952):
30-52, 191-211. A more recent study, Gordon D. Young, ed.,
ence
to wisdom literature at all in reference to
28
follows will break no
new ground and risks oversimplification. The pur-
pose is to provide a
larger context for the specific problem to be addressed in
later chapters, and to
show that the texts do not contain discussions that
can be called
"theodicy" in the modern sense. Gods and goddesses were
rarely blamed for human
suffering. It was almost always the human who
was at fault.
The discussion of Mesopotamian literature will be divided
into two
groups: Sumerian and
Akkadian. In the conclusion I will examine von
Soden's four elements
necessary for theodicy listed above and evaluate the
literature of Mesopotamia
and
A. Mesopotamian Literature
A brief discussion of the Mesopotamian viewpoint
is necessary
in order to appreciate
the documents examined below, and the focus here is
specifically on how
individuals related to the gods. Two groups of texts will
be discussed, Sumerian
and Akkadian.
To begin with, the Mesopotamians believed in a pantheon of
gods.
Some were major
deities, others played more minor roles. They were
essentially
personifications of various aspects of reality,94 and guided the
world according to
their purposes and laws.95 The gods often displayed
characteristics such as
spite, lust and rage, and sometimes there was con-
tention between various
gods due to competing purposes. They were
94 Giorgio Buccellati,
"Wisdom and Not: The Case of
JAOS 101 (1981): 36.
95 Samuel N. Kramer, The Sumerians: Their History, Culture and
Character (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1963), 113.
29
members of a "divine assembly"96 which sought to determine
a common
course. The interests
of the gods ran roughly parallel to that of humanity,
since humans were
created for the purpose of serving the gods:
Blood I will mass and cause bones to
be.
I will establish a savage,
"man" shall be his name.
Verily, savage-man I will create.
He shall be charged with the service
of the gods
That they might be at ease!97
This view of mankind
was more a reflection of their society than their
theology, according to
H. W. F. Saggs:
In the Sumerian city-state,...the
characteristic and most significant
organization was the temple-estate, in
which thousands of people co-
operated in works of irrigation and
agriculture in a politico-economic
system centered on the temple, with
all these people thought of as the
servants of the god. The myth of the
creation of man, therefore, was
not basically a comment on the nature
of man but an explanation of a
particular social system, heavily
dependent upon communal
irrigation and agriculture, for which
the god's estates were primary
foci of administration.98
The gods needed people
to care for them and, provide sustenance through
the sacrifices. From
this the ancient Mesopotamians derived personal
96
E. T. Mullen, Jr., "Divine Assembly," ABD, 2.214-217.
97 ANET, 68. The quote is from tablet VI:5-8; cf. also VI:33-34. In
other
works this poem is often called Enuma Elish, after the opening line
of
the poem. Much the same attitude is taken during the Old Babylonian
period
in the Atrahasis Epic; see W. G.
Lambert and Alan R. Millard,
Atra-hasis: The
Babylonian Story of the Flood (Oxford: Clarendon, 1969),
59.
98 H. W. F. Saggs, Encounter with the Divine in
30
dignity and self-worth.99
Dignity and self-esteem for the individual person
were determined by
function in that society.
The lot in life for the average person was to be quiet,
keep the land in
good order and attend
to the needs of the gods, yet the number of requests
for divine intervention
show that the purposes and plans of the gods were
not clearly
discernible.100 These plans or principles which kept the cosmos
running smoothly were
designated by the Sumerian word me,
the exact
meaning of which is
still uncertain.101 These divinely ordained decrees
covered over one
hundred aspects of human life and civilization, though
many are still obscure
in meaning due to the fragmentary nature of the
texts where they are
listed, translation problems, and the difficulty in-
herent in attempting to
understand a culture that has not existed for over
three thousand years.102
Thus there was a concern on the part of the
99 Saggs, Encounter, 170.
100 Karel van der Toorn, Sin and Sanction in Israel and Mesopotamia
(Assen:
Van Gorcum, 1985), 4. Atrahasis gives the reason for
destroying
mankind
in a flood as "noise." The debate over the term rigmu has a bear-
ing
over whether the flood was justified by human sin; or whether humans
are
merely a nuisance. It has been suggested that the noise which dis-
turbed
Enlil was a metaphoric reference to wicked behavior; see Robert
Oden,
"Divine Aspirations in Atrahasis
and in Genesis 1-11," ZAW 93
(1981):
197-216, thus the need to keep "quiet." Population control is another
possibility
suggested by A. D. Kilmer, in "The Mesopotamian Concept of
Overpopulation
and Its Solution as Reflected in the Mythology," Or 41 (1972):
160477.
101 Kramer, The Sumerians, 115. A list of the
discernible portions of
the
mes is on 116.
102 For a discussion of me,
see Gertrud Farber-Flugge, Der Mythos
"Inanna and
Enki" unter besonderer Berucksichtigung der Liste der me
(Rome:
Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1973). This book lists previous discus-
sions
(116, n. 121); and cf. also W. W. Hallo and J. J. A. van Dijk, The
31
individual to live
according to the divine order that regulated virtually all
areas of life.103
For the ordinary human the more prominent deities seemed
remote
and unapproachable.
Thus the individual's main focus in religion had to
do with personal gods,
who were seen as intermediaries and intercessors
between the supplicant
and the great gods.104 The personal god was inti-
mately involved with an
individual's success or failure, as indicated by the
following proverb:
The destruction is from his own
(personal) god;
He knows no savior.105
The personal god was
often envisioned or addressed as a parent. Under
this metaphor the god
was seen in four ways: (1) the physical aspect (the
father as engenderer of
a child or the mother who gave birth), (2) the
provider aspect, (3)
the protector and intercessor, and (4) the claim parents
have upon children for honor
and obedience.106
Exaltation of
Inanna
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 49-50 for
Hallo's
view, which is that a me represents a divine attribute.
103 See John Gray,
"The Book of Job in the Context of Near Eastern
Literature,"
ZAW 82 (1970): 251-252.
104 For a discussion of the
personal gods see T. Jacobsen, The Trea-
sures of
Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion (
University
Press, 1976), 147-164, and H. Vorlander, Mein
Gott: die Vorstel-
lungen vom
personlich Gott irn Alten Orient and im Alten Testament,
AOAT
23 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1975).
105
Life in Ancient
Mesopotamia
(
sity
of Pennsylvania Press, 1959), 45, 306.
106 Jacobsen, Treasures of Darkness, 158.
32
The
metaphor of the parent under which the personal god was
viewed made the cosmic
powers of the gods more immediate and approach-
able, and this
ultimately led to the paradox of the righteous sufferer in
Mesopotamian
literature. The personal deities were imaged as parental
figures and portrayed
in a positive light. Yet when misfortune came upon
the individual there
seemed to be no way to know what had been done to
offend the god other
than reading omens or trial-and-error guessing.107
This is very evident in
dingir.sa.dib.ba texts:
My god, I did not know how severe your
punishment is.
I frivolously took a solemn oath in
your name,
I profaned your decrees, I went too
far,
I .... your mission in trouble,
I transgressed your way much,
I did not know, much .[...
My iniquities are many: I know not what I did.108
In the last line quoted
the supplicant appears to portray both parts of the
theological problem
faced by the one who suffers: an assumption of guilt
and an ignorance of the
offense.
To these people there was no sharp distinction between the
care of the
body and care of the
soul, as opposed to modern Western societies in which
religious faith and
scientific medical practice are frequently viewed as
mutually exclusive
categories.109 For the ancient Mesopotamians the onset
107 Van der Toorn, Sin and Sanction, 94-97; see also
Walton, Ancient
Israelite
Literature,
153.
108 W G. Lambert,
"DINGIR.SA.DIB.BA Incantations," JNES
33
(1974):
275, lines 23-29. The expression dingir.sa.dib.ba
has reference to
appeasing
an angry god."
109 Brown,
33
of disease, illness and
misfortune were often seen to have mysterious
causes. Speaking
specifically of the situation of debilitating illness,
Michael Brown says:
If one lost one's health and vigor one
became a burden to both family
and society, apparently suffering from
divine disfavor as well. Thus
it was crucial that the deity's favor
be incurred and his or her help
secured. To the ancient Near Eastern--and biblical!--mind, it was
impossible to countenance a major god
/God who did not heal.110
Another factor in the problem of suffering is that of the
human
element in healing, i.
e., the existence of those who practiced medicine.
They practiced magical
arts and divination in order to diagnose the cause of
the disease or malady,
and also prescribed appropriate incantations or
other kinds of
treatment to alleviate the suffering, or appease the offended
deity who would take
away the problem. The two most frequent terms
referring to those who
practiced the medical art were the asipu
and asu.
The asipu viewed the onset of disease as a
chain of events initiated under
the influence of
"supernatural" powers or forces, which proceeded on a
predetermined course to
an outcome that could be predicted by the skillful
reading of
"signs."111 The asu
viewed disease as the complex of presenting
symptoms and findings;
by his "practical grasp" (intuition plus accumu-
"The
Healing Christ," in Healing and
Christianity, ed. M. Kelsey (New
110 Brown, Israel's Divine Healer, 53 (emphasis in
original).
111 E. K. Ritter,
"Magical-expert (=asipu) and
Physician (=asu).
Notes
on Two Complementary Professions in Babylonian Medicine," in
Studies in Honor
of Benno Landsberger on his 75th Birthday, ed. H. Guter-
bock
and T. Jacobsen (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 301.
34
lated experience) of
the immediate situation he prescribed treatment.112
Treatment most often included
herbs, plants, animal parts, etc., mixed
with carriers such as
beer, vinegar, honey, or tallow, and introduced into
the patient's body by
means of ingestion, enema or suppository. Other
treatments were topical
lotions or salves used directly on the body.113
Mesopotamian medicine shows a highly developed internal
system
which integrated
folk-belief, cultic ritual, and prescribed treatment.114
However it shows change
over time, with the asu falling out
of use in favor
of the asipu, so one should not expect to see
both offices featured
prominently in all
Mesopotamian medical texts.115
1. Sumerian Literature
Although the Sumerians are never referred to in
the
Bible116
their language, culture and religion had a profound effect on the
Assyrians and, later,
the Babylonians, both of which had considerable
influence militarily,
politically, culturally and religiously on
112 Ritter,
"Magical-expert," 302. For more discussion of these two
professions
see
heim,
Ancient
(Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1977), 288-305.
113 Oppenheim, Ancient
114 See Brown, Israel's Divine Healer, 42-43, and the
accompanying
documentation.
115 For a brief sketch of
the history of Mesopotamian medicine see
Oppenheim,
Ancient Mesopotamia, 288-305; and J.
V. Kinnier
"Medicine
in the Land and Times of the Old Testament," in Studies in the
Period of David
and Solomon and Other Essays, ed. T. Ishida (
116 Walter R. Bodine,
"Sumerians," in Peoples of the
Old Testament
World, ed. A. J.
Hoerth, G. L. Mattingly, and E. M. Yamauchi (Grand
Rapids:
Baker, 1994), 19-20, especially n. 1.
35
a.
"Man and His God"
This poem, which is dated c. 1700 B. C.
or
earlier,117
can be divided into five sections: (1) lines 1-9, introduction; (2)
lines 10-20+,
description of an individual's sickness and misfortune; (3)
lines 26-116, the main
body of the poem, a description of poor treatment by
his contemporaries
(26-55), a lament (56-95) and confession of guilt, sin and
an appeal for
deliverance (96-116); (4) lines 117-129, the response of the god;
and (5) lines 130-140
praise to the god, followed by a one-line colophon.118
Since, in the Sumerian world view, humanity was created to
serve
the gods119
and blessings and prosperity gained thereby, the penitent
sufferer in the poem
confesses his sin and guilt in the hope that his present
misfortune will be
reversed. However, there is no mention of a specific
transgression and the
sin is never explicitly stated.
In general, offense to the gods, or sin, was more often
seen in terms
117 S. N. Kramer, "‘Man
and His God’: A Sumerian Variation on the
Job
Motif," in Wisdom in
and
D. W. Thomas, VTSup 3 (Leiden: Brill, 1955), 170, suggests it may go
back
as far as the Third Dynasty of Ur, c. 2000 B. C. This dating has gained
general
acceptance. But for a list of some dissenting scholars see
Mattingly,
"The Pious Sufferer," 308-309.
118 Kramer, "Man and
His God," 171; cf. ANET, 590. Because of
numerous
lacunae in the text and the obscurity of a number of crucial
passages
the suggested section division is not quite certain, according to
Kramer.
119 See Enuma Elish VI:5-8; also Kramer, The Sumerians, 123; and
Thorkild
Jacobsen, "
Ancient Man, ed. H.
Frankfort et al. (
1946;
repr.
36
of the cult and the
rituals associated with it.120 Moral evil does not seem to
have been experienced
in any way other than when it was reduced to the
"pain of
suffering" by the victims.121 In "Man and His God"
this seems to be
the case, since the
confession of guilt never goes beyond generalization.
The only proper
recourse the supplicant had "was not to argue and
complain in the face of
seemingly unjustifiable misfortune, but to plead and
wail, lament and
confess, his inevitable sins and failings."122 A pointed
statement in this
regard is found in lines 102-103 of the poem:
Never has a sinless child been born to
its mother,
.... a sinless workman(?) has not existed from of old.
This belief in original
sin123 provided a solution to the problem of suffering
without challenging the
justice of the gods, thus removing this poem from
the ranks of theodicy.124
W. G. Lambert has recently stated that in his view
"Man and His
God" should not be considered part of the wisdom literature
120 Some see the
Mesopotamian idea of sin tied very strongly to ritual
offenses,
see G. R. Driver, "The Psalms in Light of Babylonian Research,"
in
The Psalmists, ed. D. C. Simpson (
1926),
136; while more recently, others have pointed out the exceptions to
this,
e. g. Saggs, Encounter, 117.
121 Jean Bottero, "The
Problem of Evil in Mesopotamian Mythology
and
Theology," in Mythologies, ed.
Y. Bonnefoy, rev. W. Doniger, 2 vols.
(Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1991), 1.162.
122 Kramer, The Sumerians, 125-126.
123 Saggs, Encounter, 115.
124 Von Soden, "Das Fragen,"
46. Mattingly, "The Pious Sufferer,"
312-313,
seeks to retain this document as a theodicy by arguing for a
limitation
of power on the part of a god and a new definition of theodicy,
which
is related to an explanation of suffering, apparently with or without
reference
to a divine being.
37
genre because the
Sumerian sufferer confessed sins while asking for
release from his
sufferings, apparently in the belief that this was more a
confession than a
struggle over philosophical questions regarding evil and
the innocent, since it
never questions divine justice.125 To put it bluntly,
since there are none
without guilt there is no such thing as an innocent
sufferer, only an
ignorant one.
Apparently belief in mankind's inherent sinfulness was
justification
enough to account for
the misfortunes and sickness the penitent in this
poem begged to have
relieved. The belief in allgemeine
menschliche Sund-
haftigkeit
negated any objections a human might raise.126 The attitude of
the ancient
Mesopotamians of "guilty as charged" had the disadvantage of
not knowing what the
charge was. Supplicants were forced to throw them-
selves on the mercy of
the gods hoping to gain a positive hearing, since the
will of the gods was
often inscrutable.127
b. Letter-Prayers128
This type of letter had been previously
referred to
as "letters of
petition" by F. Ali or “Gottesbrief” by A. Falkenstein.129
Hallo
125 W G. Lambert,
"Some New Babylonian Wisdom Literature," in
Wisdom in
Ancient
son
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 30-31.
126 Hans-Peter Muller.,
"Keilschriftliche Parallelen zum Biblischer
Hiobbuch:
Moglichkeit und Grenze des Vergleichs," Or 47 (1978): 369.
127 This is a brief
statement of a more complex situation, see Kramer,
The Sumerians, 126; and in
more detail, Mattingly, "The Pious Sufferer,"
313-318.
128 This genre of
literature was so named by W. W. Hallo, "Individual
Prayer
in Sumerian: The Continuity of a Tradition," JAOS 88 (1968): 76.
129 See Hallo,
"Individual Prayer in Sumerian," 76, n. 32.
38
suggested
letter-prayers for this genre since the term seemed "preferable"
to Ali's suggestion and
Falkenstein's was "difficult to translate."130 He also
points out that the
letters are not always addressed to a god, but might also
be addressed to the
king, one of the king's servants, or a deified king who
was deceased but
addressed as "my god." Two letter-prayers are addressed
to private individuals,
or at most to officials.131
In the view of the Mesopotamians, if a personal god was
angry with
an individual, a
sacrifice and the appropriate ritual was necessary to
appease the divine
anger. Sacrifices were carried out in the various tem-
ples dedicated to the
gods. But what if, as Jacobsen asks, the god is not
present when the
supplicant presents a sacrifice to appease the god's
anger? Or what if the
person is too sick to travel to the temple to present
prayers and sacrifices?132
The answer was to send a letter to the god which
was placed near the
statue of the deity, relieving the supplicant of the need
to appear personally
before the god.133
Many of these letters have been recovered and they
essentially follow
a similar pattern. They
begin with a salutation to the divine addressee
followed by the message
and a conclusion. The body of the letter has no
recognizable structural
divisions but most of the contents express com-
plaints, protests,
prayers and formal reinforcements of the appeal, though
130 Hallo, "Individual
Prayer in Sumerian," 76-77.
131 Hallo, "Individual
Prayer in Sumerian," 77.
132 Jacobsen, "
133 These prayers were originally
inscribed on a valuable object
belonging
to the worshipper, but economic factors eventually led to the
development
of this literary genre, and letters were deposited, rather than
inscribed
objects, according to Hallo, "Individual Prayer in Sumerian," 75.
39
not always in this
order.134
One of the longest of these letters is one addressed to Enki,
the
personal god of a
scribe by the name of Sin-gamubi, son of Ur-Nim.135 He
complains of attacks by
a hostile deity (line 15) despite his loyalty and proper
observance of the
offerings at the festivals "to which I go regularly" (lines
11-12). Although there
is no question of his guilt (line 17), no omen has
revealed the specific
nature of his offense (line 14). Following a long list of
complaints regarding
his physical condition and treatment by contempo-
raries he promises to
dwell in the "gate of Guilt-Absolved," sing praises and
proclaim the god's
exaltation (lines 46-56) when the sin is cleansed.
As in the poem "Man and His God," there is no
specific sin referred
to, only a conviction
on the part of the penitent worshipper that he was
guilty. At worst, the
blame is placed on a hostile deity for the illness and
the supplicant pleads
for his personal god to intervene.
One might also enlist the aid of a more powerful god:
To the god my father speak; thus says
Apil-Adad, your servant:
"Why have you neglected me (so)?
Who is going to give you one who can
take my place?
Write to the god Marduk, who is fond
of you,
That he may break my bondage;
Then I shall see your face and kiss
your feet!
Consider also my family, grownups and
little ones;
Have mercy on me for their sakes, and
let your help reach me."136
134 Hallo, "Individual
Prayer in Sumerian," 76-77.
135 Hallo, "Individual
Prayer in Sumerian," 85, lines 1, 8.
136 Marten Stol, Altbabvlonische Briefe im Umschrift und
Uber-
setzung, Heft 9
(Leiden: Brill, 1981), 141; Jacobsen, "
40
Apil-Adad calls on his
personal god to act on his behalf since mankind
exists to serve the
gods. The logic is impeccable. If the personal god allows
Apil-Adad to remain
indisposed for an extended period, or to die, then there
will be one less person
to serve the needs of the personal god. Along with
this there is also the
pleading for the personal god to consider the needs of
the worshipper as well.
He points out all the other members of his family
who depend on him. The
case is argued that a failure on the part of the
gods to restore this
man to health will have dire consequences not only on
the man's family but on
the gods themselves. This "spiritual arm-twisting"
is a typical example of
the manipulations attempted in Mesopotamian
literature to cajole or
convince a god to act on behalf of a person.
To sum up, in the traditional definitions of theodicy137
one seeks to
justify the ways of God
(or a god) when faced with suffering that is seem-
ingly undeserved. It is
an attempt to remove the contradictions in a theo-
logical system that
holds to a doctrine of a benevolent deity and acknow-
ledges the possibility
of undeserved suffering. In my view the claim of
Mattingly that
"Man and His God" should retain the classification of theo-
dicy fails to convince,
since the Mesopotamian gods were not seen as "holy"
in the same way
by Mesopotamians when
faced with misfortunes and/or sickness. The very
opposite almost always holds
true. Guilt is assumed, and the prayers are
characterized by the
confession of sin and guilt in a "shotgun blast"
approach. This method
seeks to cover all aspects or possibilities by making
137
See Mattingly's discussion in "The Pious Sufferer," 311-312.
41
the confessions in the
most generalized terms, since humans are seen as
inherently sinful. This
is validated by the world view held by the Mesopota-
mians which was
strongly tied to the act-consequence relationship.
2. Akkadian Literature
The main point of the study here is to
get an idea of the
content of four
representative literary pieces, so the analysis may not delve
as deep into all the
issues as one might like.
a. The
Pious Sufferer
This text is stored in the Louvre,
where it is desig-
nated AO 4462.138
It was published by Jean Nougayrol in 1952 and dates
from the seventeenth or
sixteenth century.139
After the introduction (lines 1-11) the suffering one speaks,
addres-
sing his master, saying
that his affliction is due to no known sin:
Maitre, j'ai bien reflechi en
moi-meme:
... de faute voluntaire,
Et de faute involuntaire commise par lui, je n'(en) connais
pas!140
The speaker in this
text is obviously questioning the traditional position of
the Mesopotamians, that
of a strict doctrine of retribution for sin. At this
point there is doubt
expressed over the justice of the way the supplicant is
being treated by the
god. However, as Lambert points out, this could be an
admission of sin, not a
denial of it.141 If Lambert's view is correct the
138
Mattingly, "The Pious Sufferer," 319.
139 Jean Nougayrol,
"Une version du ‘Juste Souffrant,’" RB 59 (1952):
239-250.
140 Nougayrol, "Une
version," 243, lines 12-13.
141 BWL, 11, n. 1. He suggests reading line 14: u! - [ka-ab-bi-i]s!
42
petitioner here may be
ignorant but not innocent, since the second strophe
goes on to say:
Mais, moi, j'accepte ton courroux,
(Sa) suite funeste, je la prend a mon compte.
The difference between
an innocent sufferer and an ignorant one is subtle
but important in the
Mesopotamian view of the subject. At the end of the
document the petitioner
is directed to do charitable deeds, which could be
interpreted as a
penance (lines 62-65).
In stanza 8 the response of the god to the sufferer is
found:
Thy demarche is worthy of a man. Thy
heart is innocent.
The years are fulfilled, the days have
redeemed thy suffering.
Hadst thou not been called to life,
how wouldst thou have come to the
end of this serious illness?
Thou hast known anguish, fear in its
full extent.
Until the end hast thou borne thy
heavy load.
The way was blocked; it is open to
thee.
The road is levelled; grace is granted
to thee.
In the future forget not thy god,
Thy creator when thou hast received thy health.142
Seeing that the god apparently declared the suffering one
innocent as
well as giving a
warning to pay more careful attention to the god, it appears
there was confusion
over the doctrine of retribution, or as Mattingly says,
"the traditional
theodicy is not without its flaws."143
an-zi-il-la-ka
a-na[ku i]k-ki-ba-am li-im-na-ma am-x [x] x x x x ("I have
trespassed
against you, I have . . . . a wicked abomination").
142 Gray, "Book of
Job," 259. Cf. Nougayrol, "Une version," 247.
143 "The Pious
Sufferer," 320.
43
Questions
may also arise over the translation of the first line in the
previous quote. Gray
has translated the Akkadian li-ib-bu-uk
la i-li-im-
mi-in
"Thy heart is innocent." But lemenu
means "to fall into misfortune,
to come upon bad times,
to turn into evil," and with libbu
as subject, "to
become angry."144
If this is correct I would suggest translating this phrase
"your heart
should/must not become angry," making this an admonition
against anger rather
than a verdict of innocence.
The author has expressed ignorance of his offense, yet
counted on the
good will of the god to
relieve his suffering. In spite of being left in the dark
regarding his sins, the
author continues to hold to the doctrine of retribu-
tion, essentially
seeing piety (probably understood as ritual observance) as
the best way to
counteract or prevent calamities.
b. Ludlul
Bel Nemeqi
This poem's title comes from its
opening line
which is usually
translated "I Will Praise the Lord of Wisdom," the lord of
wisdom being Marduk.145
It has also been called the "Poem of the Right-
eous Sufferer" and
"The Babylonian Job"146 although any comparison with
the book of Job fails
to appreciate the depth of the problem of suffering in
Job, where no definite
answer is given.147
144 CAD, vol. 9 (1973), 117.
145 Lambert, BWL, 21-28; ANET, 434-437, 596-600.
146 Mattingly, "The
Pious Sufferer," 321.
147 R. E. Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical
Wisdom
Literature (New York:
Doubleday, 1990), 156, criticizing the position taken
by
H. Gese, Lehre und Wirklichkeit in der
alten Weisheit (
B.
Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1958), 63. M. Weinfeld claims "Man and His God"
and
Ludlul Bel Nemeqi have more in common with thanksgiving psalms
than
with Job, see his "Job and its Mesopotamian Parallels--a Typological
44
There
is also a difference between the Akkadian nemequ
and the
Hebrew hmAk;HA. The Akkadian word denotes
possession of skill for the
performance of an
occupation, as does the Hebrew. However, nemequ
is
associated frequently
with magic rites, incantations, and spells, and rarely
used with reference to
morals.148 In Hebrew, hmAk;HA
is seen as skill in an
occupation (e. g.,
Bezalel, Exod 31:1-3), just as the Babylonian ummanu
refers to manual skills
and intellectual talent.149 The Hebrew term is
unique in that duties
to God in a moral or ethical sense are emphasized
over the observance of
ritual, cult magic, incantations or spells, as is the
case for nemequ. Lambert calls hmAk;HA a "philosophy of life"
and cites only a
single passage where nemequ is used with this connotation.150
The poem consists of a long monologue written on four
tablets over
400 lines in length,
dating from the Kassite period (c. 1500-1100 B. C.).151 In
this monologue a man of
affluence and authority named Subsi-megre-
Sakkan (which means
"O-god-Sakkan-provide-me-with-abundance"152)
Analysis"
in Text and Context: Old Testament and
Semitic Studies for F. C.
Fensham, JSOTSS 48, ed.
W. Claasen (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1988), 217.
148 Thus Lambert, BWL, 1; and "Some New Babylonian
Wisdom Liter-
ature,"
32; cf. L. Kalugila, The Wise King
(Uppsala: CWK, 1980), who dis-
cusses
the vocabulary of Sumerian and Akkadian expressions for wisdom
(38-39)
and cites passages from Enuma Elish showing Marduk's tie to
incantations,
spells, and cult magic (43-45).
149 Lambert, "Some New
Babylonian Wisdom Literature," 30.
150 "Some New
Babylonian Wisdom Literature," 31. The passage
occurs
in the incantation series Surpu
II:173: "Siduri...goddess of wisdom"
(distar(15) ni-me-qi), see Erica Reiner, Surpu:
A Collection of Sumerian
and Akkadian
Incantations
AfO 11 (1958): 18.
151 Lambert, BWL, 15; Mattingly, "The Pious
Sufferer," 321.
152 Bottero, "Problem
of Evil," 1.167, although he transliterates Sakkan
45
relates how he suffered
numerous afflictions and was eventually restored to
health and prosperity
by Marduk.153
An outline of the poem is as follows: (1) introduction, (2)
desertion by
the gods, (3) forsaken
by friends and acquaintances, (4) failure of all
attempts to appease the
gods; suffering only increases, (5) the promise of
deliverance through
three dreams, and (6) restoration to health and
prosperity.154
Frustration over unresponsive deities and the inability of
diviners
and priests to
determine the cause of the problem was the lot of this
suffering soul:
I called to my god, but he did not
show his face,
I prayed to my goddess, but she did
not raise her head.
The diviner with his inspection has
not got to the root of the matter,
Nor has the dream priest with his
libation elucidated my case.
I sought the favour of the zaqiqu-spirit, but he did not enlighten
me;
And the incantation priest with his ritual
did not appease the divine
wrath against me.155
The afflicted sufferer complains that his misfortunes have
struck
even though he has not
been lax in cultic responsibilities:
with
only one "k."
153 Lambert, BWL, 21.
154 Cf. Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature, 171; and
Lambert, BWL,
21.
A text published by D. J. Wiseman has been identified as the first tablet
of
the poem, see "A New Text of the Babylonian Poem of the Righteous
Sufferer,"
AnSt 30 (1980): 101-107; see also W.
L. Moran, "Notes on the
Hymn
to Marduk in Ludlul Bel Nemeqi," JAOS
101 (1983): 255-260.
155 See BWL, 39, tablet II:4-9; cf. also
II:108-113.
46
For myself, I
gave attention to supplication and prayer;
To me prayer was discretion, sacrifice
my rule.
The day for reverencing the god was a
joy to my heart;
The day of the goddess's procession
was profit and gain to me.
The king's prayer--that was my joy.
And the accompanying music became a
delight for me.
I instructed my land to keep the god's
rites,
And provoked my people to value the goddess's name.156
Subsi-mesre-Sakkan's confusion led him to conclude in
II:33-38 that
human values and divine
values seem inverted, and that the ways of the
gods are beyond human
ability to determine:
I wish I knew that these things would
be pleasing to one's god!
What is good for oneself may be
offensive to one's god.
What in one's own heart seems
despicable may be proper to one's
god.
Who can know the will of the gods in
heaven? Who can understand
the plans of the underworld
gods?
Where have humans learned the way of a god?157
This apparently innocent sufferer had found no comfort in
his reli-
gion, and may be
covertly blaming Marduk for his suffering, though he
approaches this with
great delicacy and avoids any open accusations.158
The gods were
unresponsive, the diviners and priests were unable to
determine the cause of
his calamities and he had no assurance that
observing the cult
actually led to reward and prosperity from the gods. This
complaint is followed
by a series of statements on the very uncertain nature
156 See BWL, 39, 41, tablet II:23-30.
157 ANET, 597.
158 Lambert expresses this
view in "Some New Babylonian Wisdom
Literature,"
32-34.
47
of human existence
(II:39-47) and the speaker confesses ignorance of the
meaning of it all:
I am appalled at these things; I do
not understand their
significance.159
The problem is
seemingly relieved in a series of three dreams,
following which the
illness is taken away and the misfortunes are reversed.
Unfortunately the
tablet is broken at the very point at which the sufferer's
infractions were
revealed (III:55-60). In Lambert's translation160 only line
60 is still intact:
He made the wind bear away my offenses.
However, line 58 has
been reconstructed to read:
It has become patent to me, my
punishment, my crime, (to wit) that I
did not revere her (the goddess's) fame.161
This reconstructed line
shows that the speaker did not consider himself an
innocent sufferer, only
a previously ignorant one. He cites his failure to
give proper respect to
a goddess as one of the reasons for his calamities. If
the surrounding text
could be reconstructed it would become clear just
what caused the god and
goddess to send the misfortunes upon Subsi-
mesre-Sakkan. Presuming
that line 58 would be in synonymous parallel-
ism with line 57 one
can posit another similar statement of wrongdoing
159 BWL, 41, II:48. See also the discussion in Lambert, BWL, 22.
160 BWL, 51.
161 CAD, vol. 4 (1958), 170:
i-pi-a-an-ni in-nin-ti(!) ar-ni la aduru
dalilisa.
48
cited as further cause
for the misfortunes.162
c. R.S. 25.460
This relatively short (46 lines)
Akkadian text was
discovered at Ras
Shamra and published in 1968.163 It dates from c. 1300
but its archaisms push
it back as early as the Old Babylonian or early
Kassite periods, in
terms of original composition.164 The author of this text
does not grapple with
the reasons behind the suffering.165 In fact, the
opening lines (1-8)
indicate that no method of inquiry had been able to
produce an answer.166
With support from family and friends, the sufferer
was encouraged to
depend on the mercy of Marduk, since this situation was
known to have occurred
before (lines 9-24). In the closing lines the sufferer
launched into praises
for Marduk (lines 25-46).
The similarities to Ludlul
Bel Nimeqi and the appearance of an
Akkadian text at
162 Synonymous parallelism
is displayed in III:50-51, the closest
complete
lines in the surviving texts and throughout the poem. This is in
no
way a conclusive argument but it certainly leaves open the possibility,
even
the likelihood, of a parallel statement.
163 J. Nougayrol,
"(Juste) Souffrant (R.S. 25.460)," Ug 5 (1968): 265-273.
164 "Le texte d'Ugarit
date de ca.1300, mais sa graphie, ses archais-
mes,
son style depouille, sa concision meme (en face de Ludlul), lui
assignent
vraisemblablement une date de composition paleobabylonienne
ou
de plus haute epoque ‘cassite,’" "(Juste) Souffrant," 267. See
also H.-P.
Muller,
Das Hiobproblem:
und im Alten
Testament (
1978),
56; and Mattingly, "The Pious Sufferer," 324.
165 W von Soden,
"Bemerkungen zu Einigen Literarischen Texten in
Akkadischen
Sprache aus
166 The text refers to
oracles (line 2), haruspicy (3), omens (5), and
oneiromancy (6), see
Nougayrol, "(Juste) Souffrant," 268.
49
Levant.167
Here, as in other literary pieces, the innocent sufferer seeks a
resolution to his
problems from within the religious system, rather than
questioning its
validity or seeking answers elsewhere.
d. Babylonian
Theodicy
This work is structured as an elaborate
acrostic of
27 stanzas, eleven
lines each.168 It is one of the most developed and
skeptical cuneiform
texts concerned with divine justice and human suffer-
ing.169
Lambert says this poem was probably written about 1000 B. C.,
although von Soden
gives a date of about two centuries later.170
The author of the poem is identified by the acrostic which
translates,
"I
Saggil-kinam-ubbib, the incantation priest, am adorant of the god and
the king."171
The work consists of a dialogue between an unnamed skeptic
and a more pious
friend.
As the acrostic unfolds the skeptic recites all the
injustices and diffi-
culties he has
experienced, beginning with being orphaned at a young age
(lines 9-11), resulting
in poor health and destitute conditions (lines 27-33).
167 Gray, "Book of
Job," 262. Nougayrol, "(Juste) Souffrant," 267,
speaks
of the possibility of a common source behind Ludlul and R.S. 25.460:
"Dann
1'etat actuel de nos connaissances, mieux vaut nous en tenir a
1'hypothese
d'une source ancienne commune a 25.460 et a Ludlul,
et
renfermant
deja tous les elements dont nous avons souligne la presence
dans
ces deux textes a la fois."
168 Lambert, BWL, 63. For the text see BWL, 70-91; ANET, 601-604.
169 Mattingly, "The
Pious Sufferer," 325.
170 Lambert, BWL, 63; W. von Soden, "Das
Fragen," 51-52. For a quick
overview
of the entire poem, see Lambert, BWL,
64-65.
171 Lambert, BWL, 63: a-na-ku sa-ag-gi-il-ki-[i-na-am-u]b-bi-ib ma-
as-ma-su
ka-ri-bu sa i-li u sar-ri.
50
The pious friend
recites what appears to be a proverb of conventional
wisdom:
n[a]-til pa-an ilim-ma ra-si
la-mas-[sal
n[a]-ak-di pa-li-ih distar(15)
u-kam-mar tuh-[da].
He who waits on his god has a
protecting angel,
The humble man who fears his goddess accumulates wealth.172
The sufferer then points out examples which call into
question the
supposed connection
between piety and divine reward (lines 48-53), and
claims he has not
failed to observe the required rituals, which should, by
implication, ward off
all the calamities he has endured (lines 54-55). The
friend responds with
his dogma that can be summed up as "piety pays."173
The examples cited by
the sufferer--the wild ass who tramples the grain,
the lion who attacks
livestock and the human profiteer--will all pay the
penalty for their
crimes in due time (lines 59-64).174 Holding his ground,
the sufferer stubbornly
says:
Those who neglect the god go the way
of prosperity,
While those who pray to the goddess
are impoverished and
dispossessed.
In my youth I sought the will of the
god;
With prostration and prayer I followed my goddess.
172 BWL, 70, lines 21-22. Line 21 may be translated "he who waits
on
his
god has good fortune," a parallel statement to line 22. See Jacobsen,
Treasures of
Darkness,
155-156; and Oppenheim, Ancient
198-206,
for general discussions of the relationship between individuals and
protective
spirits, including the terms ilu, istaru,
lamassu, and se'du,
even
though the latter term does not occur here.
173 Lambert, "Some New
Babylonian Wisdom Literature," 35-36.
174 Cf. Saggs, Encounter, 119.
51
But I was
bearing a profitless corvee as a yoke.
My god decreed instead of wealth destitution.175
The element of
prosperity coming to the wicked is an item that has
not been mentioned in
any work we have examined previously,176 but seems
to be one of the most
irritating issues to the sufferer in the Babylonian
Theodicy.177
It seems that the prosperity of the wicked, more than the
suffering of the
(apparently) righteous, made the problem so acute. While
no one could be sure
that an outwardly good person had not secretly or
unknowingly offended a
god, one could hardly doubt that an obviously bad
person deserved
punishment.178
The friend responded with the pious-sounding observation
that the
ways of the gods are
unknowable:
The plans of the gods are as
[inscrutable(?)] as the midst of the
heavens,
The utterance of the god or goddess is not comprehended.179
The divine mind is remote like the
inmost of the heavens,
Knowledge of it is arduous, people are uninformed).180
The frustration of the sufferer must have been aggravated
by the fact
that he was an
incantation priest, i. e., a religious professional. If anyone
175 Lines 70-75, BWL,
76-77.
176 R. J. Williams,
"Theodicy in the Ancient Near East," in Theodicy
in the Old
Testament,
ed. J. L. Crenshaw (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983), 46.
177 Saggs, Encounter, 119.
178 Saggs, Encounter, 119-120. Similar issues confronted
the writers
of
Pss 37, 49 and 73 as well as the book of Job.
179 Williams,
"Theodicy," 46; cf. lines 82-83, BWL,
76-77.
180 Jacobsen, Treasures of Darkness, 162; cf. lines
256-257, BWL, 86-
87.
52
should have had an idea
of how to reverse suffering, calamities and diffi-
cult circumstances it
should have been him, or his associates.
The conclusion reached by the friend is that the evil
experienced by
humankind is not
directly due to the injustice of the gods, but to the sin of
each individual. When
the gods created humanity they
Gave perverse speech to the human
race.
With lies, and not truth, they endowed them for ever.181
In other words, whatever evil is done by individuals is
done because
the gods made them that
way. Both sufferer and friend began by assuming
that the gods were
responsible for maintaining justice among humans.
They ended up by
admitting that these very gods made people prone to
injustice.182
The poem ends with the sufferer thanking his friend for his
sym-
pathy and with a plea
to the personal god and goddess to give help and to
show mercy, as well as
a call for Shamash to guide him.183 The problem is
never solved--at least,
not in this text. Whether the deities this man called
on ever responded is
not known.
The speakers in this poem had to content themselves with
the
181 Lines 279-280, BWL, 88-89; cf. Saggs, Encounter, 120.
182 Lambert, BWL, 65. This quote contains an idea
very similar to the
statement
found in the Sumerian "Man and His God" quoted above: "Never
has
a sinless child been born to its mother, .... a sinless workman(?) has
not
existed from of old." See Kramer, "Man and His God," lines
102-103.
183 Lines 295-297, BWL, 88-89. Shamash is called a
shepherd, show-
ing
a positive view of the god, or it may be an ingratiating statement
designed
to coax the god into helping him.
53
conclusion that the
righteous person simply did not exist. The justice of the
gods was not at issue,
since the ways of the gods were unknowable, thus it
was useless to question
them. For this reason I question the appropriate-
ness of the commonly
used title of the poem. The issue of theodicy does not
arise in the so-called Babylonian Theodicy.
e. The Poem of Erra
This little-known poem has received
only slight
attention from the
scholarly world because of its relatively recent recovery
and collation of many
of its text fragments.184 However, Erra was
apparently very popular
in
large geographical area
during the first millennium.185
The basic story-line is that humans had offended several
gods, in-
cluding Erra, Marduk, the Sebetti 186 and the Anunnaki.187 The offenses
184 L. Cagni, Das Erra-Epos: Kleinschrifttext (
cal
Institute, 1970); idem, The Poem of Erra (Malibu,
CA: Undena, 1977).
Previous
texts were either incomplete or incompetently handled, see Daniel
Bodi,
The Book of Ezekiel and the Poem of Erra,
OBO 104 (
denhoeck
& Ruprecht, 1991), 13, n. 11.
185 Jacobsen, Treasures of Darkness, 227; Bodi, Ezekiel and Erra, 52.
For
issues of introduction see Bodi's discussion on pp. 54-62.
186 The Sebetti were seven wicked gods without
individual names.
They
acted as a unit, even to the point of being treated grammatically in the
singular.
Their cult was widespread in the latter half of the first millen-
nium.
In the Erra poem they are exclusively evil, as opposed to Erra and
Ishum
who reconstruct the country in the last tablet of the story, see Cagni,
Poem of Erra, 18-19.
187 Anunnaki is a Sumerian loanword meaning "the princely
seed,"
see
Bodi, Ezekiel and Erra, 65, n. 57.
For a list of Sumerian evidence for
these
gods see A. Falkenstein, "Die Anunna in der sumerische Uber-
lieferung,"
in Studies in Honor of Benno Landsberger
on his 75th Birthday,
ed.
H. Guterbock and T. Jacobsen (
54
included contempt
(I.120-121), disrespect (I.122), and cultic offenses such as
neglecting the proper
care of Marduk's statue (I.127-128). Even animals
were holding gods in
contempt (I.77) and trampling and destroying the
pastureland which
sustained the country (I.83-86). The Anunnaki
were
deprived of sleep
(I.81-82) because of the noise made by mankind, which
may be an echo of a
similar motif in the Atrahasis epic (see above). In the
underworld there is a
taboo of silence. Breaking the silence makes it im-
possible for a mortal
to return to the earth unless another person or a god
intervenes.188
Apparently the gods believed that the increase in the
number of
humans and the
resultant noise posed a direct threat to the gods, that they
would be overwhelmed
(I.79). Erra mentioned the "former sin" committed
by humans (V.6), no
doubt referring to the contempt humans showed Erra
(cf. I.120-122).189
Stirring up rebellion and war, society was devastated but
an assis-
tant, Ishum, interceded
on behalf of humanity and was able to calm Erra
down before all of
humanity was killed. Ishum then confronted Erra with
his indiscriminate
killing of both the guilty and innocent:
quradu dErra kinamma
tustamit
la kinamma tustamit
1965),
127-140. for evidence in Akkadian literature see in the same volume
B.
Kienast, "Igigu and Anunnaki nach den akkadischen Quellen," 141-158.
188 Note Gilgamesh XII.23, 28; and cf. S. N.
Kramer, "Death and the
Nether
World According to the Sumerian Literary Texts,"
68.
189 Bodi, Ezekiel and Erra, 66.
55
sa ihtukama tustamit
sa la ihtukama tustamit
Hero Erra, you killed the righteous
one.
You killed the unrighteous one.
You killed the one who had sinned
against you.
You killed the one who did not sin against you.190
Thus humans were
punished because of sin (hitu)
against Erra. The
expression "to sin
against (a deity)" is similar to the numerous examples in
Akkadian literature
where in legal contexts it refers to an offense against
the suzerain, breaking
a treaty or covenant, or failing to keep an obliga-
tion.191
Humans were punished for offending the gods, thus the "din" or
"noise" made
by humans is also a crime deserving of punishment.192 After
Ishum confronted Erra
with killing the innocent, Erra decreed that
19), and commissioned
to rebuild and restore the city (V.20-38), and blessing
was promised to those
who honored the poem (V.39-61).
One of the unique features of the Poem of Erra is that
innocent deaths
and the suffering of
the righteous are tied directly to one of the gods. To the
best of my knowledge
this is the only admission by Mesopotamian writers
that the concept of an
innocent or righteous sufferer existed in relation to
the gods. The social
implications of this are far-reaching. The brutaliza-
tion of life in the
first millennium led to the portrayal of gods as bloodthirsty
190 IV 104-107; see Bodi, Ezekiel and Erra, 68; Cagni, Poem of Erra,
54.
191 Bodi, Ezekiel and Erra, 68.
192 Cf. A. Kilmer,
"Mesopotamian Concept of Overpopulation"; and
Both,
Ezekiel and Erra, 131-155.
56
killers, with the gods
now being made in the image of man in a warlike
society.193
The evolution of the gods from warrior kings in the third millen-
nium with the image of
a protector and ruler to the parental figures of the
second millennium which
allowed worshippers to express a personal rela-
tionship to the divine
to the violence and brutality of the gods in the Erra
poem is one of a slow
deterioration of Mesopotamian culture into the
warrior societies of
the Assyrians and Babylonians.194
To summarize this section, each of the texts examined from
Meso-
potamia has the
prevailing attitude that the sufferer can never assume
innocence, only
ignorance. Part of the reason for this is that evil was built
into human nature and
therefore suffering was to be expected.195 It was
simply part of the
normal world order, thus there was no need to question
and complain. The best
course of action for the ancient Mesopotamians
was to submit and
suffer, and hope that the offended god or goddess would
eventually change the
course of events. Since the ways of the deities were
beyond human
comprehension, one could never be certain what actions
would bring about
divine wrath, but it was virtually always certain that the
fault lay with the
human sufferer, not the deity. Simply stated, the result of
this is that all suffering
is deserved, and there is no recourse but to admit
one's guilt, praise
one's god and plead for mercy.196
193 Jacobsen, Treasures of Darkness, 227: "[Iit
is the divine that con-
forms
down to the image rather than the image that rises up to approach
the
divine."
194 Jacobsen, Treasures of Darkness, 231-232.
195 Bottero, "Problem
of Evil," 166.
196 Pope, Job, 60.
57
Even
worse, there could be no confidence that one could determine
the specific offense in
any given situation. Even if someone kept within the
guidelines of the Surpu incantation list there was no
assurance of avoiding
sin, and thereby
avoiding the wrath of the gods. Everyone merited punish-
ment. Therefore divine
punishment of an apparently good person did not
call into question the
justice of the gods.197
A suffering individual did not disturb the community since
national
religion and personal
religion were thought to operate in separate spheres.
The individual distress
of a person who was enduring illness or misfortune
could be accounted for
by those around him on the assumption that this was
a private matter
between the individual and the personal god.198
As it relates to the book of Proverbs, according to many
scholars, the
Mesopotamian view of
life was shared by the sages who were part of
However, as I intend to
demonstrate, this is not exactly true for Proverbs.
Rather than accepting a
foreign Weltordnung, which has often
been the
assumption of past
scholarship, the book of Proverbs is grounded in a
distinctive Israelite
monotheistic world view and shows an awareness of
the possibility of, and
the actual existence of, an innocent sufferer.
B. Egyptian Literature
In
197 Saggs, Encounter, 117.
198 Van der Toorn, Sin and Sanction, 114.
199 According to Mattingly,
"The Pious Sufferer," 329ff.
58
ting force.200
The focal point of Egyptian religion was the pharaoh, who
was viewed as divine
and associated with Horus.201 He functioned as the
ultimate high priest,
who built temples and saw to their maintenance.202
Because Egyptian beliefs were never consolidated or
systematized
there is no single
"Egyptian religion." Beliefs remained fluid, even during
the historical period,
and they had no one "sacred book," which makes it
difficult for us to say
what was believed by whom.203 It is likely that the
existing texts relate
to a small group of the social elite showing little direct
evidence for the
beliefs and attitudes of the rest of the people.204 Baines
points out that
Since in theory the gods provided for
all of humanity, and humanity
responded with gratitude and praise,
the cult could be seen as having
universal implications. In practice,
however, the god's benefits were
unequally divided. The privileged
received the rewards of divine
beneficence and returned gratitude, while
the rest suffered
misfortune in greater measure and had
no official channel for
interacting with deities.205
The average person came into contact with the deities only
when
periodic festivals were
observed. The gods were purified, fed, clothed and
200 Hoffineier,
"Egyptians," 283.
201 Henri
Chicago
Press, 1948; repr.
202 Hoffmeier,
"Egyptians," 283.
203 David P. Silverman,
"Divinity and Deities in Ancient
Religion in
Ancient
Press,
1991), 12; see also in the same volume John Baines, "Society, Morali-
ty,
and Religious Practice," 123.
204 Baines,
"Society," 124.
205 Baines,
"Society," 127.
59
praised on a daily
basis but this was done by the privileged and by those
attached to the temple
cult, not the ordinary individual.206
The king also served as an example of or metaphor for the way
others
were to conduct their
lives. The king was "on earth for ever and ever,
judging humanity and
propitiating the gods, and setting order in place of
disorder. He gives
offerings to the gods and mortuary offerings to the
spirits (the blessed
dead)."207
In addition to the king, ma'at was also a very important concept in
Egyptian religion. The
meaning of the word incorporates ideas such as
truth, harmony and
justice.208 It is the "right" or correct behavior in any
given circumstance.209
"speaking ma'at," in contrast with the
opposites "wrong" and "falsehood,"
giving the clear
conclusion that ma'at had the
meanings "right" and
"truth" from
very ancient times.210 In a quote from an
206 Erik Hornung, Conceptions of God in Ancient
the Many, tr. John
Baines (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982), 135-136;
Baines;
"Society," 126.
207 See Jan Assmann, Der Konig als Sonnenpriester: Ein kosmo-
graphischer
Begleittext zur kultischen Sonnenhymnik (Gluckstadt:
Augustin,
1970), 17-22; and Baines, "Society," 128. In this quote
"order" is
ma'at, a fundamental
religious and social concept. "Disorder" is isft, the
opposite
of ma'at, which is associated with
the world outside creation.
208 J. D. Ray,
"Egyptian Wisdom Literature," in Wisdom
in Ancient
Gerechtigkeit
and Unsterblichkeit im alten Agvpten (
1990)
for a recent detailed study.
209 G. L. Archer and W. S.
La Sor, "Religions of the Biblical World:
210 Miriam Lichtheim, Maat in Egyptian Autobiographies and
60
(before 2200 B. C.), ma'at is shown to be equated with a
universal standard:
Justice (ma'at) is great, and its appropriateness is lasting; it has not
been disturbed since the time of him
who made it, (whereas) there is
punishment for him who passes over its
laws. It is the (right) path
before him who knows nothing.
Wrongdoing (isft) has never
brought its undertaking into port.211
Miriam Lichtheim says:
[M]an did Maat because it was
"good" and because "the god desires
it." It was the principle of
right order by which the gods live, and
which man recognized as needful on
earth and incumbent upon
them.212
This principle of
cosmic dimensions regulated the functioning of nature,
society, and an
individual's life. But it was not a mechanical, impersonal
principle. Ma'at essentially meant veracity or fair
dealing.213 Ma'at was
personified as the
daughter of the sun god and worshipped as a goddess,
having both temple and
cult dedicated to her honor.214
Due to the multiple systems of theology in
provide a basic
background to the discussion as I did for the previous sec-
tion. There were three
main systerns215 which presented different cosmo-
Related Studies, OBO 120
(Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992), 18.
The
literature on ma'at is enormous, see
(1980),
1110-1119; and A. Volten, "Der Begriff der Maat in den agyptischen
Weisheitstexten,"
in Les Sagesses du Proche-Orient ancien,
no ed. (
Presses
Universitaires de France, 1963), 73-101.
211 Lines 85ff., ANET, 412.
212 Lichtheim, Maat, 19.
213 Lichtheim, Maat, 37.
214 Edward F.
Wente, "Egyptian Religion," ABD
2.410; Hornung, Con-
ceptions of God, 75.
215 The centers for these
theological systems were based in
61
gonies and explanations
for creation. Each was characterized by a main
creator deity who
generated associated gods and goddesses.216 The enor-
mous time span over which
Egyptian literature emerges causes it to show
some variety and change
over the centuries. But unlike Hebrew wisdom
literature, Egyptian
wisdom writings were never considered sacred.217
Thus we should not
expect to see consistency throughout the literature of
systems.218
Egyptian deities were portrayed in a large number of forms,
ranging
from animal to human,
to a combination of both.219 The gods often exhibi-
ted human emotions and
engaged in human activity. They thought, spoke,
dined, traveled by
boat, had a sense of humor, and some even drank to
excess.220
The gods were created beings, hence not eternal. The Egyptian
calendar contained days
set aside to mark birthdays of many of their
a
very ancient center for Egyptian religion;
1786)
and the
Finegan, Myth and Mystery: An Introduction to the
Pagan Religions of the
Biblical World (Grand Rapids:
Baker, 1989), 39, 51.
216 Silverman,
"Divinity and Deities," 30. See also in the same volume
Leonard
H. Lesko, "Ancient Egyptian Cosmogonies and Cosmology," 88-115,
for
a more detailed discussion.
217 Wente, "Egyptian
Religion," 410.
218 See the comments of
Gladson, "Retributive Paradoxes," 80, in this
regard.
Despite the different theological systems there was very little
fluctuation
in the way ma'at was viewed, see
Lichtheim, Maat, 97.
219 Silverman,
"Divinity and Deities," 19-23; see also Finegan, Myth
and Mystery, 43-44.
220 Silverman,
"Divinity and Deities," 15-16.
62
gods.221 The
gods were also subject to death and rebirth, though not always
in the mortal sense.222
Some texts mention a limited and fixed lifespan for
deities, and the story
of "The Blinding of Truth by Falsehood" refers to "the
god's tomb."223
The resurrection of Osiris is mentioned frequently in the
Coffin Texts,224
and Re, the king of the gods, was said to die symbolically
every sunset and to be
reborn at dawn the next day.225
Since the gods participated in the afterlife it was only
natural to see
this as a precedent for
human existence as well.226 At first, only the king
and society's elite
were mummified but after the
was extended to others.227
It is this preoccupation with life or existence
after death that
provides the most insight into the Egyptian view of suffer-
ing, as we will see
below.
221 Peter Kaplony,
"Geburtstage (Gotter)," LA,
vol. 2 (1977), 477-479.
222 Silverman,
"Divinity and Deities," 29; cf. Wente, "Egyptian Reli-
gion,"
410.
223 Siegfried Morenz, Egyptian Religion, tr. A. Keep (
University
Press, 1973), 24-25; Hornung, Conceptions
of God, 151-165.
224 Hornung, Conceptions of God, 152-153; e. g.,
Coffin Text spells 16,
17
and 148 in Adriaan de Buck, The Egyptian
Coffin Texts, 7 vols. (
209-226.
225 Silverman,
"Divinity and Deities," 29; Finegan, Myth and Mystery,
4647.
226 Wente, "Egyptian
Religion," 411.
227 See R. B. Finnestad,
"The Pharaoh and the ‘Democratization’ of
Post-mortem
Life," in The Religion of the
Ancient Egyptians: Cognitive
Structures and
Popular Expressions,
ed. G. Englund (
versitatis
Upsaliensis, 1989), 89-93; and in the same volume, J. P. Sorensen,
"Divine
Access: The So-called Democratization of Egyptian Funerary
Literature
as a Socio-cultural Process," 109-123.
63
As
for the practice of the medical arts in ancient
ample evidence of
physicians who based their practice on empirico-
scientific principles
as far back as the Old Kingdom.228 They show an
advanced level of
knowledge regarding human anatomy, and in some cases
are surprisingly devoid
of magic or religious jargon.229 This is in contrast
to Mesopotamian
medicine, which seems to have been based more on
superstition than
science.230
1. The Absence of Theodicy in
The gods are rarely blamed or
questioned for the up-
heavals in human
society.231 In
great extent with that
of disorder.232 This served to promote a "don't-rock-
the-boat"
attitude, and kept the ruling group in power.
In a Middle Kingdom text there is an apologia of the
creator god, who
distances himself from
human wrongdoing, saying:
228 See Brown, Israel's Divine Healer, 41-42, and his
attending biblio-
graphy.
229 Brown,
magical
rites were practiced, see J. F. Borghouts, Ancient
Egyptian Magi-
cal Texts (Leiden: Brill,
1978); and R. K. Ritner, The Mechanics of
Ancient
Egyptian Magical
Practice (Chicago:
Oriental Institute, 1992).
230 According to Oppenheim,
Ancient Mesopotamia, 224, who ob-
served
that prescribed medical treatment occurs rarely and is not medical
but
magical. The names of diseases are not medical but usually point to the
deity
or demon that caused them.
231 Williams,
"Theodicy," 47.
232 Baines,
"Society," 163; and Reinhard Grieshammer, "Gott and das
Negative
nach Quellen der agyptischen spatzeit," in Aspekte der spat-
ag Dischen
Religion, ed.
W. Westdorf (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1979) 79-
92.
64
I made every man
like his fellow.
I did not ordain that they do wrong (isft, "disorder").
It was their desires that damaged what I had said.233
The last line speaks of the damage to the created world
(brought into
existence by the
creative word of the god?) caused by the desires of
humanity. As Baines
succinctly says:
The creator is not responsible for the
origin of evil. He cares so much
for people's well-being that "he
has built himself a shrine around
them; when they weep he hears"
(l. 135). This image of tears relates
to the origin of human beings. A
wordplay found in the creator's
apologia and in other sources says
that people arose from the
creator's tears--an indirect statement that they are born
to suffer.234
This is quite similar to the Mesopotamian view in that
there was a
divine order that
regulated society and individual lives (
tice, or attributed
evil to the gods. Any suggestion of injustice done by a
deity was done so only
with the greatest caution and circumspection.
2. Suffering is Due to Perversion of Ma'at
Where did evil arise in the Egyptian
world view? Part of
the answer has already
been referred to--the presence of isft,
"disorder."
But there is also a
more direct source, that of humans themselves. Some of
the texts quoted above
have hinted at this. In virtually all of the, wisdom or
reflective texts human
suffering is viewed as a result of the perversion of
233 De Buck, Coffin Texts, vol. 7 (1961), 464a-b. Cf.
R. B. Parkinson,
Voices From
Ancient
32-34;
and M. Lichtheim, AEL, vol. 1 (1973),
131-133.
234 Baines,
"Society," 163-164; see de Buck, Coffin
Texts, vol. 7 (1961),
465a,
and Hornung, Conceptions of God,
149-150.
65
ma'at
by humans.235
In this part of the study four documents will be examined
with
reference to these
issues. Though the study will not be detailed, it is
intended to show that
the source of evil and suffering almost always lay
with humanity's failure
to live up to the standards of ma'at,
thus placing
the blame on mankind
and removing it from the gods.
a. Admonitions
of Ipuwer
This work is usually placed in the
category of
instruction (Egyptian, sbayt236), although Williams
discusses it under the
category of speculative
works.237 The beginning of this work is lost, and
with it, the setting.
In its present form, which is no earlier than the late
Thirteenth
Dynasty, the text is in
two parts. The main body was probably produced
between 2180-2130 B. C.238
The second part is a dialogue between Ipuwer, a
sage, and the creator
god.239
Though the situation presented in this text is not
considered histori-
235 Williams,
"Theodicy," 47.
236 Ray, "Egyptian
Wisdom Literature," 18, says the root meaning of
the
word is closer to "enlightenment."
237 Ronald J. Williams,,
"Egyptian Literature (Wisdom)," ABD,
2.397,
as
does Nili Shupak, "The ‘Sitz im Leben’ of the Book of Proverbs in the
Light
of a Comparison of Biblical and Egyptian Wisdom Literature," RB 94
(1987):
99-100, n. 2. She says sbayt refers primarily to written rather than
oral
instruction, 108, n. 19.
238 Gerhard Fecht, Der Vorwurf an Gott in den "Mahnworten
des
Ipu-wer" (Heidelberg:
Carl Winters Universitatsverlag, 1972).
239 Williams,
"Egyptian Literature (Wisdom)," 397-398.
66
ca1240 it is
unusual in that the sage criticizes the god for deplorable condi-
tions existing in the
land. The king responds to the criticism at the end of
the document, and from
what remains of the speech it seems that the king
places the blame for
the adverse conditions on the people themselves.241
Even in a text where a
god was reproached for allowing people to suffer and
conditions to
deteriorate, the conventional orthodox view is still present,
that these conditions
are due to actions of people, and the gods are not
blamed.
b. Dispute
of a Man with His Ba
Dating from the Twelfth Dynasty, this
poem is
preserved in a single
manuscript, of which the first part is missing.242 It is
also known as the
"Dispute over Suicide."243 There are many ways of
interpreting this
difficult work but the basic facts are communicated as a
discussion between
"a man" and his ba, or
"soul."244 Although this is
frequently the
translation seen for ba it has no
Semitic equivalent, and
"soul" fails
to properly communicate its salient meaning. It also introduces
a dualistic distinction
between body and soul proper to some other philo-
sophical systems but
contrary to the concept of human beings held by the
Egyptians.245
It could be called the personification
of the vital force that
240 Lichtheim, AEL, vol. 1 (1973), 149-150.
241 Lichtheim, AEL, vol. 1 (1973), 161-162, n. 29.
242 Lichtheim, AEL, vol.. 1 (1973), 163.
243 ANET, 405-407.
244 R. Murphy, Tree of Life, 170.
245 Louis V. Zabkar,
"Ba," LA, vol. 1 (1975),
588-589. The ba is the
"moral
essence of a person's motivation and movement, which also enables
him
or her to be free in the next world," according to Baines,
"Society," 145.
67
animates the kha (body).246 There were
several stages of development for
the idea of the ba in post-mortem existence, and Zabkar
notes three facts:
First, the Ba indicates the fullness
of being, not a part of it. Second,
the Ba is not a spiritual part of man,
but the totality of his physical
and psychical attributes and functions.
The third fact which
logically follows from the second is
that the idea of man in ancient
spiritual or material and immaterial
elements, but that of a monistic
unit comprising all of man's
qualities; in each and all of the several
modes of existence (Ba, Ka, Ach, etc.)
man continues to live and act
as a full individual.247
A brief look at the contents of the work shows a suffering
man ex-
pressing his longing
for death. Angered over this, his ba
threatens to
leave him. This causes
horror to the man, since abandonment by the ba
would mean total
annihilation instead of the resurrection and eternal bliss
which he imagined, and
he entreats his ba to stay with him
and not oppose
him in his longing for
a natural death, rather than a suicide. The ba
then
tells the man that
death is a sad business, and that those who have nice
tombs are no better off
than those who have none. The ba
urges the man to
246 H. Seebass, "wp,n,," TWAT,
vol. 5 (1986), 533. It was often pictured
in
Egyptian artwork as a migratory stork, or a human-headed bird which
flutters
or hovers over the mummy or near the tomb and may be benefitted
by
offerings, water or shade, see G. L. Archer and W. S. La Sor, "Religions:
in
Cecil M. Robeck, "Soul," ISBE,
vol. 4 (1988), 587.
247 Zabkar, "Ba,"
LA, vol. 1 (1975), 590. For a more
detailed treatment
see
L. Zabkar, A Study of the BA Concept in
Ancient Egyptian Texts
(Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1968); and Hans Goedicke, The
Report About the
Dispute of a Man with His BA (
University
Press, 1970), 20-37, who stresses the duplexity of the meaning
against
the uniform character of the term in Zabkar's study.
68
stop complaining and
enjoy life. The man seems unconvinced, since he
closes by deploring the
miseries he has to endure, and exalts death and
resurrection. In a
concluding speech the ba decides to
remain with the
man.248
On the subject of the source of evil, the Dispute is silent. The poem
acknowledges the
existence of evil, citing many examples; but nowhere is
the question of origin
asked with regard to evil. The role of the gods men-
tioned in the text is
judicial,249 and the idea that misery in life will be
rewarded in a hereafter
appears in line 22.250 The "second poem of the
man" (lines
103-130) cites instances of wrongdoing, greed, criminal activity
and alienation, for the
current state of misery the man is enduring. In
lines 122-123 he says:
To whom shall I speak today?
None are righteous (ma'tyw),
The land is left to evildoers (irw isft).
The word translated
"righteous" is based on the root ma'at,
and means
someone who pursues
"the good," or "one attached to ma'at."251 The
opposite of ma'tyw "righteous one" is irw isft "the wrongdoer," and
has a
248 Lichtheim, AEL, vol. 1 (1973), 163; Murphy, Tree of Life, 170; and
in
greater detail, Goedicke, Report,
38-59. Williams, "Egyptian Literature
(Wisdom),"
398 sees it as an attack on the traditional costly material
provision
for the afterlife, but Goedicke (Report,
58) disagrees.
249 Goedicke, Report, 84-85, 102-109. The passage is
in lines 23-31, see
AEL, vol. 1 (1973),
164-165.
250 According to Goedicke (Report, 103).
251 Goedicke, Report, 169.
69
strong moral
connotation.252
The conclusion is that in the Dispute the problems of an
innocent
sufferer are brought on
by others who do not observe ma'at.
c. Tale of
the Eloquent Peasant
This story dates from the Middle
Kingdom and
was apparently intended
as a literary essay in what the Egyptians con-
sidered fine writing.253
The text consists of a series of nine poetic speeches
framed by narrative.254
The basic story line is that a humble oasis dweller
(not a
"peasant"255) named Khun-Anup has his goods taken from him
by a
tenant farmer. When the
complaint is brought before the high steward,
Rensi son of Meru, he
is so impressed with Khun-Anup's eloquence that he
delays the repayment of
the lost goods until after nine speeches are made.
Though it is evident in the poetry and literary devices256
that this was
an essay showing fine
writing, the main emphasis is on the rights of the
common individual.257
There is no outcry against the gods over the injus-
tices done to
Khun-Anup, only a criticism of those who fail to do ma'at, as
he tells Rensi:
Do Justice (ma'at) for the Lord of
Justice (ma'at),
who is the wise perfection
of his Justice (ma’at).
Reed pen, papyrus, and palette of Thoth all dread to write
injustice:
252 Goedicke, Report, 169. See also de Buck, Coffin Texts, 4.63a.
253 William K. Simpson,
ed., The Literature of Ancient
Haven:
254 Lichtheim, AEL, vol. 1 (1973), 169.
255 Williams,
"Egyptian Literature (Wisdom)," 398.
256 See Simpson, LAE, 35, n. 11; 37, n. 23; 41, n. 48;
etc.
257 Williams,
"Egyptian Literature (Wisdom)," 398.
70
when good is
truly good, that good is priceless--
But Justice (ma'at) is forever,
and down to the very grave
it goes with him who does it.
His burial conceals that man within
the ground,
yet his good name shall never perish from the
earth.258
The eternality of ma'at
as the standard of right order is shown here,
and injustice results
when people, especially those in power, do not abide by
its standards. Khun-Anup
calls in frustration to the high steward, who
has remained silent
during the entire ordeal:
Do not answer with the answer of
silence!
do not attack one who does
not attack you.
You have no pity, you are not
troubled,
You are not disturbed!
You do not repay my good speech which
comes from the mouth of Re
himself!
Speak justice (ma'at), do justice (ma'at),
For it is mighty;
It is great, it endures,
Its worth is tried,
It leads to reveredness.259
As the story ends, the high steward Rensi eventually forces
the
robber to repay
Khun-Anup for his losses. Rather than criticize the gods,
one of the last things
said by Khun-Anup prompting Rensi into action is the
threat by the sufferer
to plead his case to the god Anubis if Rensi continues
his silence:
258 Lines 304-307; this
translation is that of John L. Foster, Echoes
of
Egyptian Voices (Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 83.
259 AEL, vol. 1 (1973), 181. Foster's translation (Echoes, 84) differs
slightly
but meanings are essentially the same.
71
Here
I have been pleading with you, and you have not listened to it.
I shall go and plead
about you to Anubis!260
For Khun-Anap the problems he experienced were external and
social. For the man in
the Dispute they were internal and
personal.
However, both see
injustices and suffering resulting from a perversion of
ma'at.
As indicated earlier, this concept of cosmic order is similar to the
Sumerian me but with a significant difference. In
are "wielders of
the me"261 whereas in
by ma'at.262 Thus ma'at
has more extensive ramifications in its relation
to the realm of the
divine.263 It was a standard of behavior that both deities
and humans were
measured by.264 Speaking and doing ma'at led to
success; failing to do
so led to isft, disorder. If ma'at is to be understood in
the sense of harmony,
truth and justice, then this has implications for
social relationships. Everyone
has rights, and those rights carry with them
a responsibility for
those around them. Individuals were seen as care-
worthy creations of the
gods and this formed the basis for morality.265 This
260
AEL, vol. 1 (1973), 182, the end of
the ninth petition.
261 See ANET, 579-580; and Hallo and van Dijk, Exaltation of Inanna,
15,
49-50.
262
263 Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature, 91.
264 It is still a matter of
discussion whether the concept of me
was as
central
to Mesopotamian society as ma'at was
to
Wesen and
Geschichte der Weisheit, BZAW 101 (Berlin: Topelmann, 1966),
115-118
for a survey of the question.
265 John A.
Man, ed. H.
Frankfort et al. (
repr.
72
is a far cry from the
Sumero-Babylonian view that humanity was created to
serve the gods, and
that justice was a privilege rather than a right.266
d. Teaching
of Amenemhet
This purported communication of an
assassinated
king to his son and
successor has only slight bearing on this study, and it is
mentioned only due to
its unique position on the subject. It has no religious
aspect to it, and
nothing is said about ma'at.267
The main message of the instructions
is "trust no one":268
Trust not a brother, know not a
friend,
Make no intimates, it is worthless.
When you lie down, guard your heart
yourself,
For no man has adherents on the day of woe.269
Amenemhet then gives
evidence why this advice should be taken:
I gave to the beggar, I raised the
orphan,
I gave success to the poor as to the
wealthy;
But he who ate my food raised
opposition,
He whom I gave my trust used it in a plot.270
The speaker claims he did what the kings of
do, yet within his
palace a plot was made which eventually led to his
murder. In the
concluding two lines of this section of poetry Amenemhet
encourages his son to
learn the lessons he has to offer:
266 Jacobsen, "
267 William L. McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach, OTL (Philadel-
phia:
268 Murphy, Tree of Life, 165; McKane, Proverbs, 84.
269 AEL, vol. 1 (1973), 136; LAE,
194.
270 AEL, vol. 1 (1973), 136; LAE,
194.
73
If one fights in
the arena forgetful of the past,
Success will elude him who ignores what he should know.
The uniqueness of this work is seen in that it is the only
known
specimen of its kind,
yet over seventy copies or portions of it have been re-
covered.271
It is a misanthropic work, characterized by cynicism and
bitterness. In both poetical
sections Amenemhet asserts that the good he
did for his subjects
and the country was repayed with betrayal and ulti-
mately murder.
Amenemhet claims to have suffered undeserved violence.
In his advice no blame
is ascribed to the gods, only untrustworthy people
are warned against.
The political function of this essay was to validate the
succession to
the throne of Sesostris
I, the son of Amenemhet.272 It was probably written
by a creative royal
scribe in the employ of Sesostris I who showed a great
deal of imagination,
but few modern scholars take this work at face value.
This forces any
analysis of the work to be careful not to take it as an
historical record,
although the attitudes displayed toward royal advisors
and other people are
informative.
271 Lichtheim, AEL, vol. 1 (1973), 135, observes that
the subject of regi-
cide
conflicted too strongly with the dogma of divine kingship for several
works
of this sort to be produced, yet Simpson (LAE,
193) says that the large
number
of copies or portions recovered indicate its popularity. Note also the
comment
of McKane (Proverbs, 83) in this
regard.
272 Simpson (LAE, 193) calls it a blatant work of
political propaganda
designed
to validate the new king.
74
3.
Inequity or Injustice was Often Rectified in the Afterlife273
When rewards and punishments could be projected
into
a post-mortem existence
the problem of injustice and innocent suffering
becomes a less vital
concern.274 A culture which believes that there is a
judgment after death
for all individuals plays down the need for retribution
and reward in this life
since all scores will be settled in the next life and it is
never too late for
righteousness to be rewarded.
C. Conclusion
Some comparisons of Sumero-Babylonian literature
with that
of
First, we can observe that theodicy, by strict definition,
is not an
appropriate category
for discussion of Egyptian literature due to the
Egyptian view of a
judgment in post-mortem existence. This is in contrast
to Sumero-Babylonian
literature, which calls for the rectification of in-
justice and illness in
the present life. To be sure, there are protests over
injustices and bad
treatment in Egyptian literature but the general tenor of
Egyptian society was
more serene,275 and the possibility of all things being
set right in the
afterlife made a difference in their outlook.
Secondly, the gods are not viewed in either literature as
holding to as
high a moral standard
as that of Yahweh of the ancient Israelites. The
273 For a basic discussion
of the afterlife in
"Divinity
and Deities," 46-49; in more detail, Hermann Kees, Totenglauben
and Jenseitsvorstellungen
der alten Agypter (
1977).
274 Williams,
"Theodicy," 48.
275 Gladson,
"Retributive Paradoxes," 85.
75
gods of
and in neither culture
are moral standards based on the character of the
gods.276 In
doing was more often
seen as an offense against society. The claim to
"righteousness"
was usually based on ritual observations, especially in
times of suffering when
an individual was not able to get the god to reveal
the reason for the
divine anger expressed against the person.
Thirdly, in
tices; in
someone's suffering are
made in the most cautious and circumspect terms.
When it is claimed in
the Admonitions of Ipuwer that the
gods might be at
fault the king responds
with the conventional teaching that people have
failed to keep ma'at, leading to the disruption of
society. In
when a sufferer pleads
for a god or goddess to relieve sickness or suffering
there is always an
assumption on the part of the petitioner that a sin of
some kind has caused
the deity to allow this treatment.
This leads to the fourth observation, that the source of
evil in
and
with isft, "disorder," the opposite
of ma’at. Those who did not do or
speak
according to the
standards of ma'at allowed disorder
into their lives. For
the Mesopotamians evil
was often seen as a result of demonic activity,
276 Contrast with this the
numerous claims of Yahweh's holiness,
Lev
11:44-45; 19:2; 21:8; Josh 24:19; 1 Sam 2:2; etc., and the title "Holy One
of
76
hence a result of
living forces or beings. Even a "friendly" personal god may
allow suffering to
occur in an individual's life if offended, so the rituals in
Mesopotamian worship
often functioned as appeasement so that suffering
was avoided or halted.
How does the previous study relate to von Soden's four
elements
required for theodicy?
1. A Clear Sense of Right and Wrong
a.
To do right was to conform to ma'at. No one could ever
exhaust the knowledge
of ma'at completely nor conform to ma'at totally,
hence a certain amount
of disorder in an individual's life and in society
was expected. For the
Egyptians ma'at was seen as
"doing good," and
becoming cognizant of ma'at was based on instruction and
observation or
perception and insight.277
Although the Egyptians did not have a written
law code (or if they
did it has not been discovered yet) the funerary inscrip-
tions show their claims
to have done certain things or abstained from other
activities in the
attempt to gain a favorable verdict in the judgment.278
Morenz says these
inscriptions show us clearly that
...the Egyptians possessed general
maxims of conduct, such as the
need to avoid inflicting pain upon
one's fellow beings, but did not
attempt to describe exhaustively all
the possible wicked actions
whereby this could be done. They may
be said to have had an ethic of
an attitude of mind, which obliges men
themselves to apply to the
concrete circumstances the general moral maxim that one should
277 Morenz, Egyptian Religion, 123.
278 Morenz, Egyptian
Religion, 134.
77
show
consideration for one's fellows. Thus Egyptian ethics are
oriented toward commission and
omission, but also toward facts and
toward mental attitudes.279
So the norms of conduct
in Egyptian society were (apparently) not codified,
unlike the law codes in
Mesopotamia or the Torah in
a glimpse into Egyptian
ethics and morals by examining the Negative Con-
fessions (Book of the
Dead, chapter 125), where a list of actions or attitudes
was denied in order to
achieve a favorable judgment in the afterlife.280
As far as we know at present, Egyptian moral thought was
not
formulated as a code of
ethics and written down as such. Morals were
conveyed in five types
of literary sources: (1) instructions in wisdom; (2)
autobiographies; (3)
declarations of innocence in the Book of the Dead,
chapter 125; (4)
priestly prohibitions and declarations inscribed on temple
doors; and (5)
imaginative tales that conveyed moral lessons.281 Each
individual knew that
his or her personal conduct would have to be
accounted for and
weighed against ma'at in the
judgment.
b.
A sense of right and wrong is present
to some extent in
279 Morenz, Egyptian Religion, 134.
280 There are also moral
self-laudations in private autobiographies
most
often phrased as positive statements of good character and right
action,
see Lichtheim, Maat, 105. A thorough
discussion of the Negative
Confessions
(103-144), and the moral vocabulary found therein (145-150) as
well
as the aspects of ma'at (151) and a
ranking of virtues and vices (152-
153)
are also contained in Lichtheim's discussion.
281 Lichtheim, Maat, 152.
78
codes282
were in effect at various times but these did not explain why a
person may suffer a run
of "bad luck," played out as poor health, financial
setbacks, or the like.
The gods frequently left the person in ignorance of the
offense, giving them
recourse only to seek the answer through haruspicy,
oneiromancy or other
forms of divination,283 or to recite the Surpu incan-
tations, hoping to hit
upon the one that had offended the deity.
In the event that the gods did not reveal the nature of the
offense the
claim to
"righteousness" then became a claim that an individual had done
all that could be done
and the gods had not communicated any failings.284
This left a sufferer in
ignorance, but there was no assumption of innocence.
2. Significant Individual Worth
a.
Both societies held this view to some
degree, though
tians considered
themselves divine creations, and in the Middle Kingdom it
was said that the first
human (rmt, later rmt) was created from the tear
(rmit) of the creator-god.285 Though this idea was
associated with an ex-
282 E. g., Sumerian: Laws
of Ur-Nammu, Laws of Lipit-Ishtar; Old
Babylonian:
Laws of Eshnunna, Code of Hammurapi. For manuscript
data,
publication, and translation information for these and other ancient
law
collections see Walton, Ancient Israelite
Literature, 69-74.
283 For a brief look at
their divination methods see Malcolm J. A.
Horsnell,
"Religions: Assyria and
more
detail, W. Farber, "Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination in Ancient
vols.
(New York: Scribner, 1995), 3.1895-1909.
284 Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature, 180.
285 Morenz, Egyptian Religion, 183; Hornung, Conceptions of God,
150;
cf. Lesko, "Cosmogonies," 101-102.
79
planation of the
suffering of mankind it also gives an explanation of their
origin.286
Another text implies that people are small livestock, i. e. merely
cattle, the property of
the gods.287 This view is the negative end of the scale
from the title of the
pharaoh as shepherd, the shepherd's crook being one of
the earliest insignia
of the pharaoh and the origin of one of the words
meaning "to
rule."288 This is often a positive image due to its association
with provision and
protection.
An "Egyptocentric" view was prominent in the
thinking of the inhabi-
tants of that nation
which promoted them as the most important people on
earth.289
This was a result of their national religion, which had their peo-
ple being ruled by a
divine king. They held the conviction that their nation
was the center of the
earth290 and that they were superior to all other peo-
ples.291
Their self-worth seemingly was rooted in their religion and their
belief that they held a
position of privilege and status among their gods.
b.
People were created to serve the gods,
according to
Sumero-Babylonian
belief, and as it was pointed out earlier, self-worth
came as a result of the
role or function one played in society. The gods
286 Baines,
"Society," 163; cf. also Morenz,
Egyptian Religion, 183, and
see
184 where the god Khnum's activity as creator is discussed.
287
288
289 Morenz, Egyptian Religion, 42-49. See also
290 Morenz, Egyptian Religion, 42-47. This idea was
not limited to the
Egyptians.
See the brief discussion of this motif in the OT in L. C. Allen,
Ezekiel 1-19, WBC vol. 28
(Dallas: Word, 1994), 72-73.
291 Morenz, Egyptian Religion, 47-49.
80
needed people. Saggs observes:
In the last resort, man was lord of
all: the proper functioning of the
universe itself depended upon man's
maintaining agriculture, sup-
porting the temples, and providing the gods with their
sustenance.292
Saggs may be correct in
pointing out the importance of human beings in
their roles which
supported the temple and its adjoining property, but I can
detect no sense of
"lordliness" on the part of the average person, especially
when it has been
observed so many times that people were created to do the
work the gods did not
want to be bothered with. It is difficult to see how
human beings could hold
a lofty view of themselves knowing their role of
servitude before the
gods. In contrast to Saggs' claim of lordliness, Bottero
observes the great
anxiety in Mesopotamian society evidenced by their
obsession with demonic
oppression.293
Ancient Mesopotamian society was structured around temples
to
various gods, hence one
can assume that those employed in the temple held
higher social status
than those who did not, and that there was also very
likely an ascending
order of status held among temple employees, depend-
ing on what one did.
The average person in
cance to the great gods
to merit individual attention, thus the heightened
importance and emphasis
on the personal deities.294 The suffering of an
individual was seen as
a matter between the individual and the personal
292 Saggs, Encounter, 170.
293 Bottero, "Problem
of Evil," 1.163-167, especially 1.165.
294 Saggs, Encounter, 122-123.
81
god and did not affect
the community as a whole. The two balancing per-
spectives of religious
individualism and religious nationalism combined
with the inscrutability
of the gods left a suffering individual in an ambig-
uous position.295
The gods were not morally obligated to help and this
resulted in the
cajoling and attempted manipulation of the gods seen in the
literature. Since
humanity existed to serve the gods and do their work, it
was only logical to
keep people alive and healthy, or so the ancient Meso-
potamians reasoned.
Justice as favor was originally the concept until the
law codes, especially
the Code of Hammurapi, took shape. Before this,
justice could never be
claimed; it could only be obtained through personal
connections, favoritism
or manipulation.296
3. Conflict Between Deities
Given the size of the pantheons in both
it is amazing that this
issue is rarely seen in the literature of either society.
With so many gods it
seems there might have been conflict or competition
for the loyalty of
worshippers but there is no record of such. Von Soden con-
siders that this fact
is due to a virtual monotheism on the practical level of
worship, which he
called "monotheotetism."297 While it is true that the
mythology of
is very rare to find an
individual human portrayed as a victim of the conflict
between the gods. One
of the exceptions to this would be Atrahasis in the
295 Van der Toorn, Sin and Sanction, 114.
296 Cf. Jacobsen, "
297 Von Soden, "Das
Fragen," 46.
298 E. g., Enuma
Elish.
82
epic of the same name,
as he was caught in the interplay between Enlil and
Enki.299
4. Judgment in the Afterlife
a.
This, of course, is the main element of
religion which
negates the need for
theodicy in Egyptian literature. Many of the specifics
have already been
covered above and need not be repeated here. Lest
modern readers believe
that the Egyptians were assured and comfortable
with their official
teachings, Miriam Lichtheim makes the following
observation:
But whatever apprehension of the
judgment the Egyptian had, it was
as nothing compared to his fear and
hatred of death. By right doing
and by ritual means as well, the
judgment would be overcome. But
death could not be evaded. With all
his faith in the magical
manipulation of the universe, the
Egyptian, when not indulging in
hopes and phantasies, was a
pragmatist. Death was a massive
reality. The hereafter? Except in
imaginative tales, no one had ever
come back to tell of it. These two
things remained largely unresolved:
the full-bodied fear of death, and the
nagging doubt about the reality
of a life in the beyond. To overcome
these two required not self-
assertion but rather a
self-restraining sagacity and piety:
The end of the man of god is
to be buried on the mountain with
his burial equipment (Papyrus Insinger 18, 12).300
b.
Without a doubt the ancient
Mesopotamians believed in
an existence after
death. However, the evidence is very thin that a judg-
299 See the discussion in Jacobsen, Treasures of Darkness, 116-121.
300 Lichtheim, Maat, 144.
83
went would take place.301
There are incantation texts which speak of the
afterlife in reference
to a sick person who is in the land of the dead.302 The
"Counsels of
Wisdom" speak of the Anunnaki
defining the status of the
dead:
He who fears the Anunnaki
extends [his days].303
These underworld gods
are not viewed as carrying out moral judgment on
the deceased. The fate
of the dead seems to have depended more on social
status, how they died
and the manner in which the funeral rituals were
carried out.304
Thus in
as something carried out
in this life.
Mankind’s ultimate destiny was death,
as Gilgmesh shows.305
301 See Helmer Ringgren, Religions of the Ancient Near East, tr.
J.
Sturdy
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1973), 46-48, 121-123; and J. Bottero, "La
mythologie
de la mort in Mesopotamie ancienne," in Death Mesopota-
mia.
XXVIe-Recontre assyriologique internationale, ed. B. Alster, (Copen-
afterlife
in
302 Sumeran kur-nu-gi4-a, Akkadian erset la tari; lit. "land of no
return."
The OT knows the earth as the "land of the living" (MyyH
Crx),
Isa
38:11;
53:8; Jer 11:19; Ps 27:13; Job 28:13; etc., as opposed to the netherworld.
Job
10:21 observes that this place is a land of gloom and deep darkness from
which
no one returns. For a detailed study see Nicholas J. Tromp,
Primitive
Conceptions of Death and the Nether World in the Old Testament
(Rome:
Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1969).
303 BWL, 105, line 147. For more on the Anunnaki see the discussion
of
Erra above.
304 H. W. F. Saggs,
"Some Ancient Semitic Concepts of the Afterlife,"
Faith and
Thought
90 (1958): 168.
305 See the comments of
Murphy, Tree of Life, 155-156.\
84
Beyond death was the
netherworld ruled by Nergal and his consort Eresh-
kigal, and inhabited by
the disembodied spirits (etemmu) of
the dead. Each
etemmu
experienced a shadowy, dismal existence in this dark and dreary
place where clay and
dust were eaten for food. The twelfth tablet of the
Gilgamesh epic lists
various fates for people but none are pleasant. The
concept of a happy and
blissful afterlife did not exist in Mesopotamia.306
The analysis of theodicy and the applicable literature of
the cultures
of the ANE have shown
that only
innocent sufferer.
However, it seems many scholars limit this to OT books
other than Proverbs.
Why is this so? This will be discussed in the next
chapter.
306
Horsnell, "Religions: Assyria and
85
CHAPTER
TWO
THE
LACK OF DISCUSSION RELATED TO INNOCENT SUFFERING IN
THE BOOK
OF PROVERBS
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to explore some of the past
assump-
tions of scholarship to
establish why the book of Proverbs has been excluded
from discussions of
innocent suffering or sufferers. Then I will suggest a
thesis which will allow
a detailed discussion of the main topic in the
remainder of this
study. My purpose is not to recount the history of wisdom
scholarship or the
scholarly trends concerning the book of Proverbs in
general but to examine
certain trends and positions which seem to exclude
Proverbs from the
discussion of this topic.l
I.
Past Assumptions
There are two main points that will be touched on in this
part of the
study. The first is the
categorization of Proverbs as conventional wisdom,
with the implication
that a mechanical or impersonal order and a rigid
expression of
retribution are norms. The second is the perception that Job
and Qoheleth, as
exceptional, wisdom, react against the dogmatization seen
in the sayings and
admonitions of Proverbs.
1 For a brief discussion of
wisdom scholarship see R. E. Clements,
One Hundred
Years of Old Testament Interpretation (
minster,
1976), 99-117; and more recently R. N. Whybray, The Book of Pro-
verbs:
A Survey of Modern Study (Leiden: Brill, 1995).
86
A.
Proverbs is Conventional Wisdom
One of the assumptions of past studies of Proverbs is that
the
book reflects the
conservative outlook of conventional wisdom.2 R. B. Y.
Scott describes it as
"conservative, practical, didactic, optimistic, and
worldly wise."3
Other scholars have suggested two additional beliefs
regarding conventional
wisdom as expressed in Proverbs, the first of which
is the assumption that
the divine order of the world is similar in function to
the Egyptian idea of ma'at,4 and second, that
there is a strict doctrine of
retribution at work in
the book which controls reward and punishment.
Both of these issues
will be discussed in some detail, since they form an
important part of the
interpretational matrix for the book of Proverbs, and
are a part of the
reason why scholars, both past and present, fail to discuss
Proverbs in any
detailed treatment of the topic of innocent suffering.
1. Reflection of a "Divine" Order
According to some scholars, the primary
foundation of
wisdom thinking is the
concept of order:
The fundamental premise of wisdom is
belief in order. Implicit is a
world view of reality as subject to
laws established by a Creator, to
governing principles discernible by
use of reason. Wisdom seeks to
understand these rules, to discover
the appropriate deed for the
moment.5
2 R. Gordis, "The
Social Background of Wisdom Literature," HUCA
18
(1944): 81-82.
3 R. B. Y. Scott, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, AB vol. 18
(Garden City:
Doubleday
& Co., 1965), xvix.
4 For a discussion of ma'at in Egyptian literature see chapter
1.
5 J. L. Crenshaw,
"Wisdom in the OT," IDBSup,
954. See also idem,
"Prolegomenon,"
in Studies in Ancient Israelite Wisdom,
ed. J. Crenshaw
87
According to Lennart
Bostrom6 this concept of order is virtually axiomatic
due to its familiarity
and prominence in scholarly works dealing with
wisdom literature.7
These studies often draw heavily on the wisdom
traditions of the ANE
and emphasize the permeation of creation by a cosmic
order that integrated
the various parts of reality into a harmonious
whole.8 The
goal of the sages was to discover order, and once the order of
the cosmos was
determined "wisdom could be achieved, lessons made
(New
York: KTAV, 1976), 27; R. E. Murphy, The
Tree of Life (
Doubleday
& Co., 1990), 115; and cf. J. Blenkinsopp, Wisdom and Law in the
Old Testament:
The Ordering of Life in
Oxford
University Press, 1983), 41-73, for a discussion of how moral order
pervades
all Israelite traditions.
6 Lennart Bostrom, The God of the Sages (
Wiksell,
1990), 91; also Murphy, Tree of Life, 115.
7 E. g., W. Zimmerli,
"The Place and Limit of Wisdom in the Frame-
work
of Old Testament Theology," SJT
17 (1964): 146-158; H. Gese, Lehre
und Wirklichkeit
in der alten Weisheit: Studien zu den Spruchen Salomos
und zu dem Buche
Hiob (Tubingen:
J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1958); H.
H.
Schmid, Wesen und Geschichte der
Weisheit: Eine Untersuchung zur
altorientalischen
Weisheitsliteratur,
BZAW 101 (Berlin: Topelmann, 1966);
idem,
Gerechtigkeit als Weltordnung:
Hintergrund und Geschichte des
alttestamentlichen
Gerechtigkeitsbegriffes (
Siebeck],
1968); idem, "Schopfung, Gerechtigkeit und Heil: ‘Schopfungs-
theologie’
als Gesamthorizont biblischer Theologie," ZTK 70 (1973): 1-19; G.
von
Rad, Wisdom in Israel, tr. J. D.
Martin (London: SCM, 1972); and H.-J.
Hermisson,
"Observations on the Creation Theology in Wisdom," in Isra-
elite Wisdom:
Theological and Literary Essays in Honor of Samuel Terrien,
ed.
J. G. Gammie et al. (New York: Scholars Press, 1978), 43-57.
8 L. G. Perdue, Wisdom and Creation: The Theology of Wisdom
Literature (Nashville:
Abingdon, 1994), 37. For a discussion of scholar-
ship's
trends in these areas see J. A. Gladson, "Retributive Paradoxes in
Proverbs
10-29" (Ph. D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1978), 8-18, 22-52.
88
apparent, and laws for conduct established."9
This view is often held as a parallel to the Egyptian
concept of
ma’at,10
with an Egyptian mentality virtually transposed onto the wisdom
literature of the
Hebrew Bible.11 Ma'at
essentially means truth and jus-
tice expressed as a
single concept. However, a large number of scholars
have seen order or
world order as its meaning. The idea of ma'at
as order
was then applied to
both Israelite and Egyptian wisdom.12 This order un-
derlies the
thought-pattern of the sentence literature. According to Gese:
Vielmehr wird hier in der Weisheit auf
Grund der Erkenntnis einer
der
Welt innewohnenden Ordnung gesagt, dass der Fleissige durch
sein Tun reich, der Faule arm wird;
and ebenso wird Gerechte
Erfolg, der Ungerechte Misserfolg
davontragen. Wir konnen fast von
einer naturgesetzlichen Weise
sprechen, in der sich die Folge aus
der Tat ergibt.13
H. H. Schmid proposed a common "altorientalische
Weltordnungs-
denken"14
observable in
OT this view of world
order was designated by the root qdc
which "scheint
in ihrem kanaanaischen
Hintergrund diesem Vorstellungsbereich einer
9 Murphy, Tree of Life, 115.
10 See R. Anthes, "Die
Maat des Echnaton von Amarna," JAOS
Supplement 14 (1952):
1-36;
(Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1973), 113, and H. H. Brunner, "Der freie
Wille
Gottes in der agyptischen Weisheit," in Les Sagesses du Proche-Orien
ancien, no ed. (Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France, 1963), 103.
11 See Schmid, Wesen and Geschichte, 47-50, 156-166.
12 Michael V. Fox,
"World Order and Ma'at: A Crooked Parallel,"
JANES 23 (1995): 38.
13 Gese, Lehre und Wirklichkeit, 34-35 (emphasis
in original).
14 Schmid, Gerechtigkeit als Weltordnung, 14-23,
65.
89
umfassenden Weltordnung
anzugehoren."15
However, this view has been criticized by Jorn Halbe, who
has
argued that almost any
world view will have elements of a concept of order,
and that the
act-consequence is of such a general nature that parallels can
be found in most
cultures, which does not necessitate a claim of borrowing,
even if these cultures
neighbor one another.16 Also, Schmid's analysis of
qdc
can
be disputed.17 In Schmid's view the ancient oriental concept of
order had broad
application and included the areas of law, wisdom,
nature/fertility,
war/victory, cult/sacrifice and kingship, but he was unable
to demonstrate
convincingly that qdc
held this meaning in Biblical texts
except in the three
areas of law, wisdom and especially kingship.18 His
idea that qdc constitutes a term for world order
assumes a Canaanite
background for the
root, but this is difficult to detect in the OT material.19
Those who attempt to view Israelite wisdom through the
concept of
order based on a
comparison with Egyptian literature and the function of
ma'at
see ma'at as an impersonal principle,
according to which every-
thing in the world is
ordered. Those who have noted the impersonal formu-
lations of the Biblical
sentence literature seize upon this impersonal nature
15 Schmid, Gerechtigkeit als Weltordnung, 66.
16 Jorn Halbe, "’Altorientalisches
Weltordnungsdenken’ and alttest-
amentliche
Theologie: Zur Kritik eines Ideologems am Beispiel des
israelitischen
Rechts," ZTK 76 (1979): 385-395.
17 See the criticisms made
by Bostrom, God of the Sages, 94; and
Diet-
hard
Romheld, Wege der Weisheit: Die Lehren
Amenemopes and Pro-
verbien
22,17-24,22,
BZAW 184 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1989), 121-122.
18 Schmid, Gerechtigkeit als Weltordnung, 171.
19 Bostrom, God
of the Sages, 94.
90
of order to explain the
occurrence of consequences. These scholars also
point out the
"secular" character of these sayings, noting the lack of
reference to God.
In reacting to this we cannot doubt the Egyptian influence
reflected
in Proverbs in both
literary forms and motifs,20 since the similarity is too
striking to be
considered coincidence.21 However, there has been a shift in
thinking among
Egyptologists on the nature of ma'at,
who observe that the
concept of ma'at was not static.22 Brunner
pointed out that from Dynasty
XVIII onward there was
a shift in Egyptian wisdom literature away from
the conventional view
of ma'at toward an emphasis on human
piety and
the free will of the
god. The emphasis in the text of Amenemope
is
interesting since it is
not ma'at which plays the significant
role but
human piety and the
god's free will to react toward the pious which are
dominant.23
This makes the assumption of an impersonal concept of
order borrowed from
based on recent
archaeological findings the date of Amenemope
has been
pushed back to a time
well before the monarchy was established in
20 See Schmid, Wesen und Geschichte, 47-50, 156-166;
and Christa B.
Kayatz,
Studien zu Proverbien 1-9, WMANT 22
(Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neu-
kirchener
Verlag, 1966).
21 Roland E. Murphy, Wisdom Literature, FOTL vol. 13 (Grand
Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1981), 51.
22 E. g., Brunner,
"Der freie Wille Gottes," 103-120; and J. Assmann,
"Weisheit,
Loyalismus and Frommigkeit," in Studien
zu altagyptischen
Lebenslehren, OBO 28
(Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1979), 12-15.
23 Bostrom, God of the Sages, 96. Examples of
personal piety and
divine
free will to react toward the pious are also well attested in the Old
and
Middle Kingdoms, but not as prominent as in the
Fox,
"World Order," 43.
91
Israel.24
This shows that the later Israelite material would have been
written after the shift
regarding ma'at in Egyptian
literature had already
been accomplished.
During this same time period ma'at
acquired per-
sonal characteristics,
including her depiction as a goddess and receiving
her own temple and
cult.25 These more current views show the flawed
assumptions of past
scholarship, since the older view virtually holds to a
kind of deism, in which
justice and world order are built into the cosmos as
one of its functioning
principles, rendering God's involvement redundant.
More recent studies
show ma'at to be distinguished from a
mechanistic
world order. It is a
standard to live by, not a mechanism for retribution.26
One of the results of seeing ma'at as an impersonal concept and
applying it to the
concept of order was to divide proverbs into secular and
religious categories,
as well as differentiate between revealed truth (e. g.,
prophetic material
which originated from Yahweh) and observational truth
based on experience. An
example of this is Norman K. Gottwald's
description of wisdom
as
a non-revelatory mode of thought that focuses on individual
24 R. J. Williams, "A
People Come Out of
Edinburgh, 1974, VTSup 28
(Leiden: Brill, 1975), 231-252; idem, "The Sages
of
Ancient
and
J. Ruffle, "The Teaching of Amenemope and its Connection with the
Book
of Proverbs," TynBul 28 (1977):
33-34.
25 See Kayatz, Studien, 93-98; W. Helck,
"Maat," LA, vol. 3 (1980),
1114-1115;
E. Wente, "Egyptian Religion," ABD,
2.410; and chapter 1 above.
26 See Miriam Lichtheim, Maat in Egyptian Autobiographies and
Related Studies, OBO 120
(Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992), 37;
Fox,
"World Order," 43.
92
consciousness of
truth and right conduct, displaying a humanistic
orientation and a didactic drive to
pass on its understandings to
others.27
However, this
separation of thought into secular and religious is a modern
phenomenon28
and there is no reason to believe that anything like
"secular"
thinking existed in the Biblical world, since distinctions like
secular versus
religious and revelation versus experience were foreign to
the Biblical mind, at
least as we understand these terms today.29
Here it must be observed that
behind its wisdom
literature. This was put succinctly by Walther Zim-
merli: "Wisdom
theology is creation theology."30 According to David A.
Hubbard, order
"stems from a view of creation that is assumed but only
rarely expressed."31
An examination of the book shows references to
creation or the Creator
only in 3:19-20; 8:22-31; 14:31; 16:4, 11; 17:5; 20:12;
22:2; 29:13.32 However,
the comparatively small number of sayings which
make reference to creation
show that while creation-of-the-world passages
27 N. K. Gottwald, The Hebrew Bible: A Socio-Literary
Introduction
(Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1985), 567.
28 Von Rad, Wisdom in
29 Bostrom, God of the Sages, 36-37; see also R. E.
Clements, "
in
its Historical and Cultural Setting," in The World of Ancient
R.
E. Clements (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 9.
Adriaan
de Buck, "Het religieus Karakter der oudste egyptische Wijsheid,"
Nieuw theoloisch
tijdschrift
21 (1932): 322-349, refuted the common idea
that
Egyptian wisdom literature was basically nonreligious, thus re-
moving
a foreign model as a basis for claiming a secular and religious
distinction
for Proverbs.
30 W Zimmerli, "Place
and Limit of Wisdom," 316.
31 D. A. Hubbard,
"Proverbs, Book of," ISBE,
vol. 3 (1986), 1019.
32 For an analysis of the
creation theology in Proverbs see Perdue,
Wisdom and
Creation,
77-122; and Bostrom, God of the Sages,
48-67.
93
gain some prominence it
is virtually impossible to ascribe any special
importance to the
creation of humans in chapters 10-31.33 This would
show that other
theological influences were at work in the formulation of
the wisdom materials. The
question for the sages was not so much "Where
did we come from?"
but rather "How do we live?" Roland E. Murphy34
raises the idea that
Israelite sages never asked what wisdom was based on.
For them it was a given
that the "fear of Yahweh is the beginning of
wisdom." He points
out that to ask the question is to attempt to reconstruct
their mentality. They
never asked the question nor consciously attempted
an answer. There is
comparatively little interest in human origins per se
but a great deal of emphasis
on relationships, and the world as showcase
for divine activity.35
Given the fact of a Creator standing behind world order so
that it
functions according to
certain laws and principles, the discovery of God's
guidelines for living a
successful life could hardly be called "secular,"
irreligious or
pragmatic. Proverbs itself tells the reader in its statement of
purpose (1:1-6) that it
intends to teach these guidelines, and the theme (1:7)
says the
"research" is based on the hvhy
txar;yi
(cf. also 9:10). So the basis of
order in the world, in
society and between individuals is based on the fear of
Yahweh, the Creator.
33 According to Bostrom, God of the Sages, 80.
34 Tree of Life, 116.
35 Tree of Life, 119. See also Murphy's discussion of creation
theology
and
its influence on wisdom materials in "Wisdom in the OT," ABD, 6.924-
925.
94
Using
the term "order" to designate the world view of the sages is
problematic, due to its
connotations.36 This concept is by no means em-
ployed in a consistent
way,37 since scholars use it to refer vaguely to a
world view that is
orderly rather than chaotic, or to a view of the world in
which everything works
strictly according to a metaphysical principle of
order to which God is
also subject.38 If the recent studies of Fox, Bostrom,
Halbe and Steiert are
correct, the idea of ma'at must not
be forced on
Israelite materials.
This is especially true in light of Fox's assessment that
ma'at
did not and could not exist in Israel.39
As this study will show in the following chapters, Proverbs
is aware
of situations in which
order is not always validated by experience. Rather
than simply appealing
to order, the sages placed their faith in divine justice
that went beyond the
observable and predictable.40
Past scholarship has placed too much emphasis on Egyptian
con-
cepts in evaluating
Israelite materials. While there is no doubt influence,
the criticisms
regarding the dialectical relationship of Egyptian influence
36 Bostrom, God of the Sages, 137.
37 See the comments of Fox,
"World Order," 40-41; and Bostrom, God
of the Sages, 91.
38 The latter view is
defended by H. D. Preuss, "Das Gottesbild der
alteren
Weisheit
VTSup
23 (Leiden: Brill, 1972), 120-128. As Fox ("World Order," 38, n. 8)
points
out, "[t]he relation between Israelite Wisdom and its foreign
predecessors
is dialectical, not imitative." For a detailed critique of Preuss'
view
see F.-J. Steiert, Die Weisheit
(Freiburg:
Herder, 1990), 28-209.
39 "World Order,"
42.
40 Raymond C. Van Leeuwen,
"Wealth and Poverty: System and
Contradictions,"
HS 33 (1992): 25-36. Note also Fox,
"World Order," 40, n. 23.
95
as opposed to
incorporation or imitation are well taken.
2. Doctrine of Retribution
A discussion of retribution arises very
naturally out of
the preceding
examination of order. If there is a created order then it
should stand to reason
that some actions will produce a good result, while
others will result in
evil. Belief in retribution often brings the justice of God
and the righteous
sufferer into tension, since it is thought that a just God
would not allow a
righteous or innocent person to endure hardship or
suffering. This issue
was discussed at some length in the first chapter in
regard to its portrayal
in Mesopotamia and
Proverbs will be
addressed, though an exhaustive discussion will not be
possible.
The doctrine of retribution is a frequently recurring theme
in the
book of Proverbs which
seems to indicate that quality of life runs closely
parallel to conduct.41
In the past it has been referred to as the "act-
consequence
relationship,"42 although Bostrom prefers the term
"character-consequence
relationship" since the texts reflect more referen-
ces to life-style than
to individual actions.43
Interlocked with the concept of retribution as seen in
Proverbs are the
41 Bostrom, God of the Sages, 90.
42 K. Koch, "Gibt es
ein Vergeltungsdogma im Alten Testament?"
ZTK
52 (1955): 1-42; H. Gese, Lehre und
Wirklichkeit, 33-45; and G. von Rad,
Wisdom in
43 Bostrom, God of the Sages, 90-91; and
Spruchsammlungen
in
8,
72, who finds the term Haltung-Schicksal-Zusammenhang
more appro-
priate
since specific actions are rarely in view.
96
ideas of order and
creation theology.44 Wisdom theology is founded upon a
presupposed world
order, which is inherent in creation, since Yahweh
created the world in wisdom
(Prov 8).45
According to Klaus Koch, retribution, to a great extent,
functions
apart from any
established norm or legal code. Citing Prov 25:19; 26:27, 28;
28:1, 10, 16b, 17, 18,
25b; 29:6, 23, 25, he says:
Sie betonen alle, dass auf eine
gemeinschaftstreue Tat Heil, auf eine
sittlich bose Tat aber Verderben fur
den Trater folgt,--dass jedoch
Jahwe dieses Verderben herverruft,
sagen sie nicht...Die Verse
erwecken zunachst den Eindruck, dass
eine bose Tat--der
Notwendigkeit eines Naturgesetzes
vergleichbar--unheilvolles
Ergehen zwangslaufig zur Folge
hat.46
This view held sway for
quite some time among scholars, some claiming
this strong association
of act and consequence constituted an early,
primitive-magical view
of reality which has left enduring traces in Biblical
material.47
In this view every act has built-in consequences for the one
who performs it. Act
and consequence are inseparable and comprehended
as one totality.48
44 As discussed above, see
W. Zimmerli, "The Place and Limit of
Wisdom,"
146-158; and H.-J. Hermisson, "Observations on the Creation
Theology
in Wisdom," 43-57.
45 Hermisson, "Observations
on the Creation Theology in Wisdom,"
44-47.
46 K. Koch,
"Vergeltungsdogma," 3 (emphasis in original).
47 H. G. Reventlow,
"Sein Blut komme fiber sein Haupt," VT 10
(1960):
311-327; J. G. Gammie, "The Theology of Retribution in the Book of
Deuteronomy,"
CBQ 32 (1970): 1-12.
48 This view has been
designated as synthetische Lebensauffassung,
a
term introduced by K. Fahlgren in "Die Gegensatze von sedaqa im Alten
Testament,"
in Um das Prinzip der Vergeltung in
Religion and Recht des
alten Testaments, ed. K. Koch (
97
However,
Koch's view can be questioned on the basis of his limited
range of material,
since he examines only Prov 25-29 on the assumption
that these chapters
appear to be the oldest section of the book.49
Koch's view of inseparable consequences has been criticized
as going
too far.50
His claim is that retribution in the OT excludes the idea that God
from time to time steps
into human history and acts as judge. Asserting
that there is no gap
between act and consequence into which a wedge of
divine retribution can
be inserted is essentially deism. This mechanistic
view of the world
probably goes beyond credibility as an attempt to
reconstruct a
subconscious world view.51
Many can agree with Koch to a small extent, since there is
an
undeniable correspondence
between act and consequence for many
everyday activities.52
This is apparent in Prov 6:27-28:
Can
a man carry fire in his lap
Without his clothes being burned?
schaft,
1972), 87-129.
49 Koch,
"Vergeltungsdogma," 2. But W. L. McKane takes virtually
all
of ch. 28 and a large part of 29 as late because it derives from Yahwistic
piety,
see his Proverbs: A New Approach, OTL
(
1970)
620, 632. The point here is not to solve the problem of dating but to
show
that the establishment of Prov 25-29 as the oldest section of the book
has
not gone unchallenged.
50 See John Barton,
"Natural Law and Poetic Justice in the Old
Testament,"
JTS 30 (1979): 1-14.
51 Barton, "Natural
Law," 11-12. See also the criticism by Bostrom in
God of the Sages, 109-113.
52 This kind of result is
classified as "predictable order" according to
Fox's
assessment ("World Order," 40).
98
Can a man walk
on coals
Without his feet being scorched?
But we also must admit
that part of the ancient Israelite mentality was the
belief in the direct
intervention of Yahweh. Roland E. Murphy points out
there has been too much
effort made to separate wisdom teaching from the
preaching of the prophets:
...wisdom is interpreted as secular
and human, an exercise on the
plane of creation in which one deals
with an Urhebergott, and not
the saving God of Israel. It is hard
to see how the average Israelite,
to whatever extent he or she recognized
the Lord as God (Deut. 6:4),
would have made the academic
distinction that is implied by this
view. Wisdom and salvation are not
incompatible in human
experience; prosperity and adversity
are personal as well as
communal. The teaching of Deuteronomy
and Proverbs suggests
that the Yahweh of both books is the
same Yahweh who is at work on
every level of experience.53
Bruce K. Waltke also argues for the compatibility of wisdom
to law
and prophecy.54
John F. Priest has argued for a common religious
tradition in early
specific emphases
without necessarily rejecting the emphases chosen by
other groups.55
According to this view prophet and sage together
53 R. E. Murphy,
"Religious Dimensions of Israelite Wisdom," in
Ancient
Israelite Religion,
ed. P. D. Miller, P. D. Hanson, and S. D. Mc-
Bride
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987), 450.
54 Bruce K. Waltke,
"The Book of Proverbs and Old Testament
Theology,"
BibSac 136 (1979): 302-317.
55 J. F. Priest,
"Where is Wisdom to be Placed?" in Studies in Ancient
Israelite Wisdom, ed. J. L.
Crenshaw (New York: KTAV, 1976), 281.
99
expressed the totality
of
Others acknowledge the difference in the views of
Deuteronomy and
Proverbs but still
regard the views as compatible. Duane A. Garrett57
admits Deuteronomy
tends to stress the concept of punishment or reward
being direct acts of
God, whereas Proverbs tends to make each action
contain within itself a
link to punishment or reward.
A consideration of the forms of proverbial literature is
decisive in
solving this problem.
Recognizing that the intent of an individual proverb
is limited to one
aspect or element of a situation may help explain why
proverbs seem limited
to act-consequence interpretations.58
In the book of Proverbs there are two ways of understanding
retri-
bution: forensic and
dynamistic.59
a. Forensic Retribution
This is the type of retribution in
which God plays
an active role and is
seen as one who brings about reward or punishment.
While it is impossible
to do a comprehensive study of this topic in
Proverbs60
two examples will be cited: Prov 3:32-35 and 5:21-23.
56 Waltke, "Book of
Proverbs," 304.
57 Duane A. Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs,
NAC vol.
14
(Nashville: Broadman, 1993), 54.
58 See the discussion by
Raymond C. Van Leeuwen, "Proverbs," in A
Complete
Literary Guide to the Bible, ed. L. Ryken and T. Longman III
(Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 1993), 260-262; and my "Doctrine of the `Two
Ways'
in the Book of Proverbs," JETS 38 (1995): 501-517.
59 See David A. Hubbard, Proverbs (Dallas: Word, 1989), 149-150,
for a
brief
explanation of these two terms.
60 See Bostrom, God of the Sages, 90-113, for a more
detailed analysis.
100
(1) Proverbs 3:32-35
:OdOs
MyriwAy;-tx,v; zOlnA hvAhy; tbafEOt yKi v.32
:j`rebAy; MyqiyDica
hven;U fwArA tybEB; hvAhy; traxem; v.33
:NHe-yt,yi
MyyinAfElav; CyliyA-xUh Mycile.la-Mxi v.34
:NOlqA
Myrime Myliysik;U UlHAn;yi MymiKAHE dObKA v.35
These verses form the conclusion to a small poem which runs
from
3:27 to 3:35, vv. 27-30
being comprised of a series of six prohibitions
exhibiting emphatic
negation61 regarding behavior in the community and
personal relationships.
Then v. 32 contains a motive clause beginning with
yKi,
followed by several reasons for the prohibitions in the previous verses.
There are statements of judgment threatened for the
perverse (zOlnA),
the wicked (fwArA), scoffers (Mycile) and fools (MyliysiK;). The perverse will
acquire the status of
abomination to Yahweh,62 while the wicked have the
curse of Yahweh upon
them in 3:32-33 and 3:34-35.
In 3:32-33 the perverse and the wicked are in parallel
construction
and the abomination of
Yahweh is a poetic parallel to the curse of Yahweh.
This set of terms would
specifically be tied to forensic retribution due to
their close association
with the covenant and cult,63 abomination being
61 W G. E. Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to its
Tech-
niques, JSOTSS 26, 2nd
ed. (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 279.
62 For a discussion of the
use of hbAfeOT in Proverbs see R. E. Clements, "The Concept
of Abomination in the Book of Proverbs," in Texts,
(Winona
Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996), 211-225, esp. 220.
63 Note Prov 15:8; and cf.
Gen 43:32 where hbAfeOT means something
like
"foreign, contrary to acceptable usage"; and Deut 14:3 where it takes
on
a
cultic meaning. It is found in parallel with the root Cqw, which refers
to
101
used to refer to
anything which dishonors God or violates the command-
ments. A curse is seen
as the most severe way of separating an evildoer
from the community.64
If this is the case, the curse of Yahweh may be
intended to make the
wicked or perverse an outcast from society. In the
book of Proverbs, which
places such great importance on getting along with
others and living
successfully in society, this would be seen as the ultimate
failure. Not only are
such persons repugnant to God but the community
has shunned them as
well.
A similar poetic structure is found in 3:34-35, with
scoffers and fools
portrayed as parallel
members,65 and being made objects of mocking and
shame as parallel
concepts.66 The concept of shame is a social control
which punished an
offender by exclusion from society or loss of status. It
relies predominantly on
external pressure from an individual or group.67
In this small poem it is obvious that God is directly
involved in
judgment, and there is
a close connection between life-style and fate. But it
is also apparent that
the community is involved in part of the punishment,
as the shaming (v. 35b)
of the fools would lead to ostracism as part of
cultic
uncleanness in Deut 17:1. The root rrx is used
frequently in Deut
2:15-26;
27:15-26 and 28:15-19, 20-36 in the list of covenant curses. A specific
link
between hbAfeOT and rrx occurs in
27:15.
64 J. Scharbert, "rrx," TWAT,
vol. 1 (1973), 441-442.
65 Also in 1:22; 19:29.
66 The idea of shame, and
its opposite, honor, will be discussed in
more
detail in the next chapter.
67 Lyn M. Bechtel,
"The Perception of Shame within the Divine-
Human
Relationship," in Uncovering Ancient
Stones: Essays in Memory of
H. Neil
Richardson,
ed. L. M. Hopfe (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1994), 80.
102
Yahweh's curse. In 3:32
the same root (Cyl)
is used to describe the scoffers
and the action Yahweh
will take against them, giving a case of strict
retribution.
(2) Proverbs 5:21-23
The proverbs which make reference to
God
(or Yahweh) in regard
to retribution sometimes speak specifically of God
acting to punish or
reward,68 but others simply state or imply a retributive
result, often in
impersonal terms or in passive constructions.69 The small
poetic unit of Prov
5:21-23,70 which is part of a longer unit which runs from
5:15 to 5:23, gives an
example of Yahweh actively involved in the assess-
ment of human conduct
(5:21); then the next two verses state the results of
sin in a way that
reflects a character-consequence relationship:
:sl.epam;
vytloG;f;ma-lkAv; wyxi-yker;Da hvAhy; yneyfe Hkano yKi v.21
:j`meTAyi OtxF.AHa
yleb;Hab;U fwArAhA-tx, OnduK;l;yi vytAOnOvfa v.22
:hG,w;yi OTl;Uaxi brob;U rsAUm NyxeB; tUmyA xUh
v.23
The two different ways of expressing the
character-consequence
relationship are used
side by side, showing that these views were not
mutually exclusive.71
It is obviously Yahweh's activity as a judge which is
68 E. g., 2:5; 3:5-10; 12:2;
15:25; 16:7; 19:3, 17; 22:12; etc.
69 E. g., 2:21-22; 16:5;
28:25; 29:25. See Bostrom, God of the
Sages, 101-
102,
112.
70 Note the chiastic
structure of verses 21 and 23:
A B B' A'
21
full view paths of a man all his ways he examines
23
he will die lack of discipline great
folly gone astray
71 See Bostrom, God of the Sages, 99.
103
the point of 5:21,72
with Yahweh examining a person's ways, which are
not hidden but in full
view (cf. NIV). The connection between 5:21 and 5:22-
23 is not that of a
reinterpretative expansion with a Yahwistic note73 but a
combination of
statements concerning Yahweh as the all-seeing observer
and guarantor of
justice in the world.74 The Egyptian concept of "weighing
the heart" after
death at judgment may be in the background here and
reflected by the root slp.75 According to the Book of
the Dead the god
Anubis weighed the
heart on scales with ma'at to see if
the person was
worthy of post-mortem
existence. If not they were devoured by a hideous
creature crouching
nearby.76
The sage's teaching is expressed in familiar images of
travel and
hunting. The image of
travel by foot is displayed in 5:21 by the use of j`r,D,
and lGAf;ma, both very prominent in Proverbs
as metaphors for conduct or
character, and in v. 23
by the root hgw
meaning "to stray (from the path), to
veer, to go
astray." The hunting or trapping term is the root dkl (5:22a),
which is frequently
used figuratively of divine judgment.77 In 5:23a
discipline (rsAUm), another common word in Proverbs, is
portrayed as life-
72 This is also true of
15:3, 11; 16:2; 21:2.
73 Suggested by McKane, Proverbs, 313. He believes this
expansion
was
possible due to this passage being located near the end of a chapter,
apparently
leaving room for a later scribe to add the note.
74 Cf. Bostrom, God of the Sages, 146.
75 This root means to
"make level" (cf. 4:26) but in the pi`el, "weigh
out."
See BDB, 814, but note HAL, vol. 3
(1983), 833: beobachten.
76 See the description of
David P. Silverman, "Divinity and Deities in
Ancient
Cornell
University Press, 1991), 48-49, and the photograph on p. 51.
77 Is 8:15; 24:18; Jer
6:11; 8:9; 48:7, 44.
104
sustaining, since a
lack of it contributes to a person's death. The person in
this proverb has
apparently ignored all sound teaching, whether it comes
from the sages (1:2, 3,
8, etc.), parents (4:1, 13; 5:7-12; 15:5) or from Yahweh
(3:11-12). As a result,
he has earned the title "fool" by his actions ("folly,"
5:23b), which go
against the fear of Yahweh (1:7; 3:11-12; 15:32-33).
The placing of Yahweh in the role of judge due to his
all-seeing
ability and sovereignty
over events to bring about punishment shows that
forensic and dynamistic
retribution could be thought of as working together
to accomplish the same
ends. Yahweh had at his disposal more than one
way to punish. Forcing
these ideas to operate separately goes against the
rare but undeniable
conclusion that Yahweh was not limited in options in
bringing about
judgment.
b. Dynamistic Retribution
In sentences which show dynamistic
retribution
there is no direct
theological reference, and a kind of mechanical corres-
pondence is sometimes
perceived to operate. About ninety per cent of the
proverbs which refer to
some type of retribution are of this kind.78 In the
past some have referred
to these sayings as "secular wisdom" and claim
this type of wisdom
predates those which are theological.79
Although a great deal of disagreement still exists over the
dates, the
collecting and
arranging of the book of Proverbs as we now have it, there no
longer exists a
requirement for scholars to analyze the book according to a
78 Bostrom, God of the Sages, 114.
79 See for example, Scott, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, xxv-xl; von Rad,
Wisdom
in
105
priori
evolutionary standards.80 The idea that the short, pithy statements
must antedate the
longer texts has no validity.81 There is no reason to
argue for a dichotomy
or development of secular to religious, or a
superiority of one over
the other.82 Thus there is no need to draw artificial
lines between various
collections and designate them as secular and
religious.83
Due to the large number of sayings in the category of
dynamistic
retribution the
discussion will be limited to 11:31 and 24:15-16.
(1) Proverbs 11:31
:xFeOHv;
fwArA-yKi Jxa Ml.Awuy; Cr,xABA qyDica Nhe
This saying is beset with textual and translation
difficulties accord-
ing to the editors of BHS, and arriving at any conclusions
regarding its
interpretation will
naturally depend on how these problems are solved.84
80 Note the view of O.
Eissfeldt, Der Maschal in Alten Testament,
BZAW
24 (Geissen: Topelmann, 1913), who argued that the folk proverb was
the
evolutionary predecessor of the literary proverb which added a line to
form
a couplet. W. O. E. Oesterley built a comprehensive theory based on
Eissfeldt's
view, claiming three stages of proverbial literature: the single
line
saying, the distich and the miniature essay. See The Book of Proverbs
(London:
Methuen, 1929), xii-xvii.
81 See Garrett, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 42; and cf. K. A. Kitchen, "The
Basic
Literary Forms and Formulations of Ancient Instructional Writings
in
OBO
28 (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1979), 251-252; and B. Gem-
ser,
"The Instructions of 'Onchsheshonqy and Biblical Wisdom Literature,"
Congress Volume,
82 Murphy, "Religious
Dimensions," 449.
83 This is discussed in
greater detail by Murphy, Tree of Life,
121-126.
84 For brief discussions of
the textual and translation problems see
106
The
issue of retribution is the primary concern of this proverb,85 and
a correct understanding
of MlA.wuy; is essential to
the interpretation. It is best
to see this verb as
"reward" since its positive and negative aspects are in
view, i. e., the
righteous and wicked each getting their just deserts.86
There are many strong
statements regarding retribution in the proverbs
preceding 11:31, and I
suggest a small poem here with the emphasis on
rewards for the qyDica and the fwArA
in the inclusio with plurals used in v. 23:
A 11:23 :hrAb;f,
MyfiwAr; tvaq;Ti bOF-j`xa MyqiyDica tvaxETa
B 11:24 :rOsH;mal;-j`xa rw,y.mi j`weOHv; dOf JsAOnv; rze.pam; wye.
B 11:25 :xr,Oy xUh-MGa hv,r;maU Nw.Adut; hkArAB;-wp,n,
B 11:26 :ryBiw;ma
wxrol; hkArAb;U MUxl; Uhbuq;.yi rBA fanemo
C 11:27
:Un.x,Obt; hfArA wredov; NOcrA wqe.bay;
bOF rHewo
B’ 11:28 :UHrAp;yi MyqiyDica hl,fAk,v; lPoyi xUh Orw;fAB; HaFeOB
B’ 11:29 :ble-MkaHEla lyvix< db,f,v; HaUr-lHan;yi OtyBe rkeOf
B’ 11:30 87:smAHA tOwpAn; Haqelov; Myy.iHa Cfe qyDica-yriP;
A’ 11:31 :xFeOHv
fwArA-yKi Jxa MlA.wuy; Cr,xABA qyDica Nhe
McKane,
Proverbs, 437-438; and Otto Ploger, Die Spruche Salomos, BKAT 17
(Neukirchen-Vluyn:
Neukirchener Verlag, 1984), 133-134. For a detailed
and
technical treatment see J. Barr, "Crxb-MOLIS:
Prov. XI.31, 1 Pet.
IV.18,"
JSS 20 (1975): 149-164.
85 Cf. also in the near
context 11:8, 17, 18, 19, 21.
86 McKane, Proverbs, 437.
87 Here I follow the
emendation of BHS apparatus which
suggests
reading
tOwpn for
tOWpn
and smAHA
for MkAHA,
cf. RSV and Whybray, Proverbs,
188.
The occurrence of MkH in 11:30 may be dittography from 11:29.
107
In
the first set of B elements the main topic is wealth, and attitudes
toward generosity.
There is a catchword, hkArAB;,
used in v. 25a and 26b. It
is left open and
unspecified as to how retribution will be expressed in vv. 24-
25, but it comes
through the actions of the community in v. 26. The C
element, which forms
the middle saying and the main thesis of the poem,
is a general expression
of the surrounding truths which enlarge on it. The
second set of B
elements is expressed in horticultural metaphors (hl,fAk,v;, v.
28b; yriP;, Myyi.Ha
Cfe,
v. 30a) and also has the root qdc
as a catchword. These
sayings deal with
social relationships and the rewards for proper behavior
or punishments for
going against acceptable social behavior. The empha-
sis on relationships
within the home (v. 29) and community (v. 30) show the
serious consequences of
going against social norms. In v. 29a bringing
trouble upon one's household
is paralleled with the taking of lives by the
violent in v. 30b. The
difficulty arises in the fact that there is no divine
reference in the
proverb.88
A caution against the danger of treating individual
proverbs in
88 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 128-130. He
suggests that seeing
11:31
in the literary context as part of a small poem runnning from 11:28-
12:4
places this proverb under the influence of the Yahweh-saying in 12:2.
This
has the advantage of placing the retributive statements in 11:31 and
12:2
in parallel. I have added the Hebrew
text to Garrett's structure for the
sake
of reference:
Aa
11:28 :UHrAp;yi MyqiyDica hlefAk,v; lPoyi xUh Orw;fAB; HaFOB
Ab 11:29 :ble-MkaHEla
lyvix< db,f,v; HaUr-lHan;yi OtyBe rkeOf
Ba. 11:30 :smAHA
tOwpAn; Haqelov; Myyi.Ha Cfe qyDica-yrP;
Bb 11:31 :xFeOHv;
fwArA-yKi Jxa MlA.wuy; Cr,xABA qyDica Nhe
Ba' 12:1 :rfaBA
tHakaOt xneWv; tfaDa bhexo rsAUm bhexo
Bb' 12:2 :faywiray;
tOm.zim; wyxiv; hvAhy;me NOcrA qypiyA bOF
Aa'
12:3 :FOm.yi-lBa MyqiyDica wr,wov; fwar,B; MdAxA NOKyi-xlo
Ab' 12:4 :hwAybim;
vytAOmc;faB; bqArAk;U h.lAf;Ba tr,F,fE lyiHa-tw,xe
108
isolation holds true
here. As we have seen in discussing other proverbs,
the sages were not
bound by modern dictums which require a separation of
retribution methods.
Various ways of punishment could be stated side by
side or in unspecified
ways, leaving the options open as to how retribution
would be worked out. A
saying such as 11:31 implies a background which
contains a belief in
some kind of comprehensive power or principle. The
Yahwism expressed
elsewhere in the book is the only plausible alternative,
according to Bostrom.89
Even though the covenant is never explicitly
mentioned in Proverbs90
we can assume it to lie behind the text.91
Canonically, the book
of Proverbs functions within the covenantal
perspective, although
this study will not address this matter. The lack of
reference to the
covenant is due mainly to the preoccupation of wisdom
materials with issues
of daily life in a created world.92 Thus the essence of
wisdom is the
"fear of Yahweh," (cf. 1:7; 9:10) a total commitment within a
framework of covenant
relationships.93 The recognition of
tion theology and
covenant standing behind the wisdom literature allows
modern interpreters to
avoid giving ma'at and the Egyptian
influence
89 God of the Sages, 122.
90 The occurrence of tyriB; in 2:17 is in
reference to the marriage vow.
91 See e. g., D. A. Hubbard,
"The Wisdom Movement and
Covenant
Faith," TynBul 17 (1966): 3-33;
and Richard L. Schultz, "Unity or
Diversity
in Wisdom Theology? A Canonical and Covenantal Perspective,"
TynBul 48 (1997):
271-306.
92 See the discussion of W.
J. Dumbrell, Covenant and Creation: A
Theology of Old
Testament Covenants (Nashville:
Thomas Nelson, 1984),
205,
and my earlier discussion of order and creation theology.
93 Dumbrell, Covenant and Creation, 205-206. Cf. also
Prov 1:7; 9:10;
Job
28:28; Ps 111:10.
109
more credit than it
deserves. The same principle holds true for Schmid's
suggestion regarding
the Canaanite influence expressed by the root qdc
(2) Proverbs 24:15-16
:Ocb;ri dDewaT;-lxa qyDica hvan;li fwArA
brox<T,-lxa
:hfArAb;
Ulw;KAyi MyfiwAr;U MqAvA qyDica lOPyi fbaw, yKi
These verses are found in the Sayings of the Wise, a
section which
shows some vague
similarities to the Teaching of Amenemope,
though
there are no parallels
between the two works at this point.94
This saying indicates that the righteous also experience
setbacks, a
rare occurrence in
Proverbs. Here the difference between the righteous and
the wicked is not so
much their fortune in life but their abilities to recover
from adverse
circumstances.95 Both the righteous and the wicked are
seen to have
difficulties which are expressed by the root lpn.
Here lpn
appears to be a morally
neutral term, relating to the hardships of life
experienced by all. The
motive clause in 24:16 is a straightforward
statement of the
retribution principle expressed in numerical hyperbole,96
in which the righteous
person succeeds but the wicked fail, using the root
lwk,
"to stumble," also a parallel to lpn
in Ps 27:2; Jer 46:6. The
94 See Whybray, Proverbs, 323-325, and P. Overland,
"Structure in
The
Wisdom of Amenemope and Proverbs," in Go
to the Land I Will Show
You: Studies in
Honor of Dwight W. Young, ed. J. Coleson and V.
Matthews
(Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996), 276-279, for brief assessments
of
the scholarly issues behind this discussion.
95 Bostrom, God of the Sages, 126.
96 Watson, Hebrew Poetry, 320.
110
significance for the
present study is the explicit admission that the right-
eous experience
trouble. The formulation of the fate of the wicked is in the
passive, similar to
2:22; 4:19; and 5:22; allowing a number of possible ways
that the wicked might
be brought down.97
The theme of retribution, regardless of whether it is
expressed
forensically or
dynamistically, is one of the most distinctive features of
Proverbs. One of the
ways this theme is portrayed is by the metaphor of
travel and by the word
"path."98 The so-called doctrine of the "
is a didactic element
of the book of Proverbs which allowed teachers to draw
clear distinctions
between good and bad choices.99 The "
teachers a format in
which to express the universally applicable doctrine of
retribution. The choice
of "one or the other" served clearly to mark the
difference between the
wise/righteous and the fool/wicked, and the conse-
quences of their
behavior.100
B. Job and Qoheleth React Against the
Dogmatism of Proverbs
If Proverbs is assumed to be the normal expression
of wisdom
then the questioning of
the norms and dogmas by the authors of Job and
Qoheleth can be seen as
a critique.
97 See Bostrom, God of the Sages; 127.
98 This concept may be
expressed by several Hebrew words,
including
j`r,D,
(the most common), Hraxo, hbAytin;/bytinA, and lGAf;ma, see my
"Doctrine
of the ‘
99 Cf. my "Doctrine of
the ‘
100 Bricker, "Doctrine
of the ‘
(Nashville:
Broadman & Holman, 1995), 122.
111
Scholars
may not always use the designation "exceptional" in
describing Job and
Qoheleth but quite a number of them use similar terms
when comparing the
relationship between Proverbs, Job and Qoheleth.101
It is common to see
statements such as:
In Proverbs the theology of
retribution offers a pat answer to almost
all questions of human fortunes. The
wicked suffer; the righteous
prosper. Yet two wisdom books
challenge the doctrine of fair
retribution in major fashion--Job and,
in somewhat lesser degree,
Ecclesiastes, claimed their personal
experiences contradicted the
common philosophy of retribution.102
If one sees Proverbs as
dogmatic expressions of retribution without the
possibility of
exceptional circumstances these quotes will accurately reflect
the material in
Proverbs. However, it will be my contention that this is not
always the case and
there are many proverbs which admit exceptions to
this "rule."
This way of seeing the wisdom literature has been a handy
over-
simplification, but my
belief is that a closer examination of the material in
Proverbs will show that
it is not entirely accurate. There are no examples
of sayings from
Proverbs as it now stands being, quoted in Job or Qoheleth.
101 There are far too many
sources to cite here. Two that are still
influential
are R. Gordis, "Social Background;" 77-118; and A. de Pury,
"Sagesse
et Revelation dans 1'Ancien Testament," RTP 27 (1977): 1-50, cited
by
B. Witherington, Jesus the Sage
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1994), 8, n. 13.
102
theological
simplicity of Proverbs probably represented the norm for
dom
during much of
focuses
on the hope of God's reward and punishment. In Job and Ecclesi-
astes
wisdom includes acceptance that good and evil sometimes come
without
identifiable cause" (21).
112
This is not to deny
similar ideas being referred to.103 An example of a
scholar who sees
similarity of ideas in both Proverbs and Qoheleth is Robert
Gordis, who says,
"maxims similar in both form and spirit to those in the
Book of Proverbs are
common in Koheleth."104 But there are no instances of
verbatim citations. The
evaluation of wisdom materials typically seen in
scholarly works which
places Job and Qoheleth in opposition to, in protest
against, or forming a
counter-balance to the axioms of Proverbs fails to
consider the lack of
references.105 It is most often simply assumed that Job
and Qoheleth are voices
in protest or counterpoint to Proverbs. A quote
from Clines
demonstrates this clearly:
The Book of Proverbs is, next to
Deuteronomy, the most stalwart
defender in the Hebrew Bible of the
doctrine of retribution. In it the
underlying principle is that
wisdom--which means the knowledge of
how to live rightly--leads to life and
folly leads to death (e.g., Prov
1:32; 3:1-2, 13-18; 8:36). Everywhere
it is asserted--or else taken for
granted--that righteousness is
rewarded and sin is punished (e.g.,
11:5-6). And the world of humans is
divided into two groups: the
righteous (or, wise) and the wicked (or, foolish); which
group a
103 See Derek Kidner, The Wisdom of Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes
(Downers
Grove: InterVarsity, 1985), 117-118, where a list of statements
from
Job are compared with sayings from Proverbs showing the similarity
of
thought.
104 Robert Gordis, Koheleth--the Man and His World (
Jewish
Theological Seminary of
quotes
but see Prov 24:21 and cf. Qoh 8:2-4.
105 The list of scholars
here is extensive. For two of the more promi-
nent
works, see David J. A. Clines, Job 1-20,
WBC vol. 17 (
1989),
lx-lxii; R. B. Y. Scott, The Way of
Wisdom in the Old Testament (New
"Unity
or Diversity in Wisdom Theology? A Canonical and Covenantal
Perspective,"
TynBul 48 (1997): 271-306.
113
particular
individual belongs to seems to be determined by
upbringing and education and there is
little hope or fear that a
person may move from one group to
another. Thus there is a
determinism about the outlook of
Proverbs, and a rather rigid notion
of cause and effect, which is
reasonable enough in material designed
for the education of the young but is
lacking in intellectual
sophistication and, to be frank, in realism.106
This quote shows evidence of the tendency among current
scholars to
limit Proverbs to a
belief in rigid retribution dogmas, determinism that
borders on deism and an
unsophisticated, simplistic view of life. One can
hold this view only if
individual proverbs are hardened into dogma.107 This
is particularly true in
regard to retribution. One must also ignore the ones
which mention innocent
sufferers/suffering. The views of retribution have
been discussed above,
as have the related issues of cause and effect, with
the conclusion that
retribution is not always portrayed as a rigid, unbend-
ing law, nor is cause
and effect seen to be operating mechanically. Clines
states: "In the
framework of the thought of Proverbs, the man Job is an
impossibility. If he is
truly righteous, he finds life, and wealth, and health.
If he is in pain, he is
one of the wicked and the foolish."108
There is no doubt that Job's three friends rely on maxims
or general-
izations regarding
retribution that are similar to some of the sayings in
Proverbs. But the use
of these statements by Eliphaz, Bildad and Zophar
differs greatly in
purpose from that of the sages in Proverbs. While
106 Clines, Job, lxi.
107 Note the comment of J.
Crenshaw, "Wisdom in the OT," IDBSup,
954,
regarding the hardening of retribution into dogma.
108 Clines, Job, lxii.
114
Proverbs employs these
statements to educate the young and encourage
faithfulness to the
relationships within the family, the community and with
God, the three friends
use them as a yardstick for morals and a diagnostic
tool for determining
reward.109
Clines correctly observes that the material in Proverbs is
designed to
educate the young, but
that does not necessarily make the material un-
realistic and
unsophisticated, as the assessment by Clines would have it.
His evaluation is far
too generalized to bring out the instances in Proverbs
where the righteous or
the innocent are shown to suffer setbacks, be denied
justice in the courts
or suffer abuse from an ungrateful child, as the
following chapters will
show.
Another issue requiring brief mention is the validity of
placing the
book of Proverbs in the
position of the ultimate model for wisdom in both
form and content.
Proverbs implies no single origin for wisdom and en-
compasses many of its
themes. Using Proverbs as a model for wisdom will
make Job and Qoheleth
appear out of line with the norm. However this line
of reasoning could be
guilty of circularity: "All wisdom is like Proverbs;
and what is wisdom?
Material that looks like Proverbs."110
The present study is intended to show that the book of
Proverbs is
aware of the
possibility of an innocent sufferer as well as the fact that the
doctrine of retribution
is not as firm as it is sometimes presented.
109 See Kidner, Wisdom, 117.
110
115
II.
A Current Proposal
A. Many Proverbs Refer to and/or
Assume Innocent Suffering
One of the main contentions of this study is that
the issue of
innocent suffering and
the existence of the righteous person who had not
gotten just or fair treatment
has been overlooked in the past. It is not that
scholars are unaware of
the problem. There are many statements in
various commentaries
that treat isolated sayings when the topic comes up
but there is no
comprehensive study.111
Proverbs recognizes innocent suffering/sufferers under
three
general categories: (1)
parental suffering, (2) emotional suffering, and (3)
suffering due to the
words/deeds of others.
1. Parental Suffering
This is a result of a child who,
because of actions or
attitudes, is labeled a
fool, using all three Hebrew words that are commonly
associated with this
label: lysiK;, lyvix< and lbAnA.
There is also the matter of parents and public shame or
disgrace
brought on by a child
who is characterized as shameful (wybime
NB,.),
a
disgrace (ryPiH;ma) or causes public humiliation (MlaKA). All these terms;
reflect a social status
or peer pressure exerted in the community that has
only recently been
brought to light and applied to OT studies.
There are also two proverbs which speak of cursing a
parent, an act
which is in direct
violation of the Torah. There are two other examples of
verbal abuse--mocking (gfalA) and scorning (zUB)—to be addressed as well.
Finally I will examine the only proverb which mentions the
physical
111 See chapter one, n. 1 above for two similar
studies.
116
abuse of parents, the
one who robs (zlaGA).
While the number of proverbs which mention parental abuse
and
suffering is not large,
they address important issues within the ancient
social structure of
portrayed in the Hebrew
Bible the topic is important and deserves recogni-
tion even though the
statistical incidence is low by any measure.
2. Emotional Suffering
There are proverbs which describe or
refer to a person
forced to deal with
difficulties described as heartaches, anxiety, depression,
frustration,
bitterness, etc. In every case there is no fault, shortcoming or
sin ascribed to these
people. They are simply forced to deal with the events
of daily life which can
not be guaranteed to turn out positive in every
instance. The main
terms under discussion in this part of the study will be
ble,
HaUr and wp,n,. For ble
and HaUr there will be a great
deal of overlap, since
these two terms are
quite often used to refer to the inner part of humans,
whereas wp,n,; will be used holistically to refer to
a "person."
3. Suffering Due to the Words/Deeds of Others
In any society there will be those who
seek to harm the
innocent or take
advantage of others. No doctrine of retribution can explain
this away. In our
modern Christian era this is often accounted for by the
doctrine of the sin
nature. The ancient Mesopotamians believed something
similar, though it had
a different expression.112 They believed that the gods
112 "Man and His
God," lines 102-103: "Never has a sinless child been
born to its mother, ...
a sinless workman(?) has not existed from of old."
117
had created humans with
the tendency to sin, something the Hebrews
never held to,113
although the later rabbinic doctrine of the two yesers
comes close.114
In the present study there are certain categories of
suffering which
arise due to the
mistreatment of the righteous or innocent. The first
category is concerned
with legal injustice. The second category is that of
damaging words; the
third, harmful actions. In each of these classifica-
tions an innocent
victim will suffer due to the careless or malicious actions
or words of another.
These proverbs are found in a broad range of literary forms
and in
almost every
collection. Attention will be drawn to these forms and loca-
tions when individual sayings
or poems are addressed.
B. Job and Qoheleth are Not
Necessarily in Opposition to Proverbs
In light of the fact that there are proverbs
which address
innocent sufferers the
assertion that Job and Qoheleth are in opposition to,
or in protest against,
the wisdom of Proverbs can be called into question.
The previous discussion in chapter one on theodicy showed
Job
reacting more against a
Mesopotamian world view than against the book of
Proverbs itself. Job
rejects the solutions offered by his three counselors,
who take a Mesopotamian
world view, according to Mattingly.115 Though it
113 See the discussion of
the origin of sin in
in
Robin C. Cover, "Sin, Sinners (OT)," ABD, 6.33-34.
114 See B. Otzen, "rcayA, yasar," TDOT, vol. 6 (1990), 265. See also the
rabbinic
comment on Deut 26:16 in Ta'an. 23b,
cited in H. Strack and P.
Billerbeck,
Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, 6
vols. (
Beck'sche,
1954) 3.751.
115 Gerald L. Mattingly,
"The Pious Sufferer:
118
is true that there are
several other parallels in cuneiform literature, none
of these can match the
book of Job, which is more profound and far-
reaching in content
than the Mesopotamian works.
Crenshaw claims Job comes to the same conclusions as the
cunei-
form documents in
regards to innocent suffering.116 He says three solu-
tions to the problem of
innocent suffering are manifest: (1) man is congeni-
tally evil; (2) the
gods are unjust; and (3) our knowledge is partial.117 But
this is not completely
accurate.
To answer these three assertions briefly, we can observe
first that
while Eliphaz and
Bildad agree with the teaching of congenital evil118 this
doctrine is never
interpreted in the Hebrew Bible to mean that mankind
was created evil. Even
the texts which speak of inherent human evil stop
short of claiming God
personally endowed humans with sinful
tendencies.119
More importantly, Yahweh never tells Job that part of his
problem is the fact
that he was born in sin. It is the three friends who
espouses this teaching,
apparently in line with current Mesopotamian
doctrine.
Secondly, the claim is made that the deities are unjust.
This is
something the three
friends never claim, only Job. It is virtually the only
tional
Theodicy and Job's Counselors," in The
Bible in the Light of Cunei-
form Literature, ed. W. W.
Hallo, B. W. Jones, and G. L. Mattingly (Lewis-
ton,
NY: Mellen, 1990), 329-330.
116 J. Crenshaw,
"Popular Questioning of the Justice of God in An-
cient
117 Crenshaw, "Popular
Questioning," 387.
118 4:17-21;15:14-16;
25:4-6.
119 Cover, "Sin,"
34.
119
defense Job has other
than a claim to innocence (9:22-24; 24:1-12). The three
friends constantly
defend God's actions in sending the suffering upon Job,
and it is doubtful that
Mesopotamian literature ever accuses a deity of
unjust treatment. If so,
it is only "sniper fire" in comparison to the heavy
artillery of Job's
accusations.120 If Scholnick's studies are taken into
consideration, God's
justice is one of the main points of the book, and
occupies the main focus
of the second divine speech (cf. 40:8).121
Third on Crenshaw's list is the claim that all the
documents had in
common the claim to
partial knowledge. This is the only one of the three
elements he lists that
I have no criticism of. The lack of certainty was
characteristic of the
Mesopotamian literature, as pointed out in the
previous chapter. It is
also important in Job, where the root fdy
is
emphasized in Job's
confession (42:1-6).
This brings us to the conclusion that Job's frustration and
agitated
reaction is not so much
with the book of Proverbs, except where it dovetails
with Mesopotamian
thought and world views. Job's contention is with his
three friends, who
insist on a dogmatic scheme of retribution, something
the book of Proverbs
does not uniformly do.
120 This was discussed in
some detail in the first chapter, where the
conclusion
was reached that any suggestion of divine fault was made
cautiously
and in circumspect terms. Crenshaw cites the Dialogue of
Pessimism (discussed in
chapter one under the title Dispute of a
Man
with his Ba), claiming that
the injustice of God lies behind the despair, but
he
gives no concrete examples to prove his point, see "Popular Question-
ing,"
388. It is far from certain how to interpret this text (see BWL, 140-141)
so
Crenshaw's position is questionable.
121 See chapter one, the
discussion of Job and theodicy.
120
Without
doubt there are similarities between Job and its Mesopo-
tamian parallels but
the resemblances are less significant when examined
closely. Proverbs does
not limit itself to the dogmas that made it possible for
Job's counselors to
claim their teachings as normative.
In regards to Qoheleth, the view of life in Proverbs is not
so super-
ficial as to allow
Qoheleth to claim that the teachings in Proverbs were in
need of balance.
Building on the previous discussion of Proverbs and
Qoheleth we can note
that the author of Qoheleth recognized inconsisten-
cies in retribution, or
at best, delays. In a very insightful discussion
Michael V. Fox shows
that the sages who penned
ture did not have the
short-sighted or superficial view of retribution that is
often attributed to
them.122 It is true that proverbs or sayings are often cast
in dogmatic terms, that
the natural course of events will punish or reward
a person's deeds. God
has created a natural order in which good deeds
typically have good
effects, bad deeds bad effects. However, natural order is
not necessarily tied to
retribution, and this leaves an opening for injustice to
occur. As J. G.
Williams points out, wisdom literature, despite its dog-
matic cast, does not
assume strict and exclusive causal links between a
deed and its
recompense.123
Qoheleth will not subsume all the anomalies he observes
under
122 Michael V. Fox, Qoheleth and His Contradictions, JSOTSS
71
(Sheffield:
Almond, 1989), 132ff.
123 James G. Williams, Those Who Ponder Proverbs (
Almond,
1981), 18. Williams says Proverbs usually deals with typical cases,
not
a strict and hard determinism that holds "all X leads to Y" and
"Y is
always the result of
X" (18-19).
121
maxims which assume
dogmatic categories. Qoheleth sees God as just but
often delaying justice.124
Qoheleth differs profoundly from other sages in
his response to certain
assumptions regarding divine justice, while agree-
ing with the principle
of divine justice and the fact of injustice.125 The
discussion in the book
of Qoheleth includes the use of wisdom sayings but is
often considered a
reflection set in a didactic form.126 Thus the :reader can
expect thematic
development and an exploration of issues in a way that
individual proverbs, or
even sets of proverbs, would have difficulty
expressing.
C. Correctly Understanding the Proverb
Genre Negates Dogmatizing
This has been briefly mentioned above in the
discussion of
retribution.
Recognizing that a proverb cannot address all aspects of an
issue will require
modern readers not to read individual proverbs dog-
matically.
Parallelism, poetical structure and limited application of
a proverb
dictate against
misunderstanding these sayings, or ascribing more mean-
ing to them than they
actually carry.127
Because proverbs or sayings are set in a poetic format some
limits on
124 Fox, Qohelet, 139.
125 Fox, Qohelet, 139. He cites four specific areas where this is
dis-
played:
(1) death, (2) time and memory, (3) the inability of human actions to
right
wrongs, and (4) Qoheleth's focus on injustice rather than justice (140-
150).
126 R. E. Murphy, Wisdom Literature, FOTL vol. 13 (
Eerdmans,
1981), 130, discusses the problem of the form of Qoheleth, saying
it
contains several forms including instruction and reflection.
127 I have set out my
position on this issue in some detail in my article
"Doctrine
of the ‘
122
expression must be
imposed, i. e., they, are not essays. In antithetic paral-
lelism there will be
normally two elements contrasted. This means the
discussion will
necessarily be short. There may be no shades of gray or
exceptions listed,
giving the impression that all people may be categorized
as righteous or wicked,
wise or foolish, etc.
However, it would be a mistake, in my opinion, to force
each proverb
to be interpreted in
isolation. A recent trend among some scholars is to see
small poetical units
scattered throughout the larger, more commonly
recognized collections.128
I agree with many of their suggested units but I
will often construct
different schemes. Seeing these poetic units within the
collections helps us
posit a larger theological foundation underlying the
editing process of the
book, as well as classifying the book of Proverbs as
literature, not just a
hodge-podge of miscellaneous maxims and observa-
tions.
As a result the proverbs should be recognized as having
only limited
application. They may
be general principles129 or situation-specific pro-
verbs).130 They may address situations which no longer
exist131 or there
may be proverbs which
state opposite positions.132 Thus the danger of
128 Two examples are Arndt
Meinhold, Die Spruche, 2 Teilen (
Theologischer
Verlag, 1991); and Garrett, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes.
129 E. g., 15:1; 13:21.
130 14:25; 22:11.
131 The monarchy and
slavery are two of many examples here for the
Western
reader, see 16:10, 12-15; 21:1; 24:21-22; 25:6-7; etc. and :12:9; 19:10.
132 The most well known
examples are 26:4-5 on answering a fool, but
note
also 17:27-28 (regarding speech), 17:8, 23 (on bribes), 15:6; 18:11 (on
wealth)
and 25:8-9 (on going to court).
123
dogmatizing should be
apparent.
D. Conclusion
The discussion above has served as a point of
departure for the
main part of this
study. The purpose of the final three chapters will be to
incorporate the
advances made in the first two chapters into the analysis in
the last three.
The first assumption that must be discarded as a result of
the
previous analysis is
that the book of Proverbs is categorized as conventional
wisdom and limited to
expressions of that viewpoint. This is not always the
case, as the discussion
above has shown. Proverbs contains many state-
ments which include
maxims which follow conventional wisdom but also
many which do not. The
following three chapters will give specifics on how
the fact of innocent
suffering or the righteous sufferer plays an important
role in the theology of
the book.
Secondly, we will take the book on its own terms without
forcing
foreign influence onto
it without adequate reason. This means discussions
of ma'at and of Mesopotamian or Canaanite backgrounds will play much
smaller roles than
might be expected. In terms of retribution, there will be
no effort to separate
the sayings which use divine references from those
which do not, since
this is now shown to be an artificial point of division.
There will also be no reason to portray Job and Qoheleth as
antagonists or balances
to the superficial dogmatism of Proverbs, since the
study will show more
agreement between these books than has been
acknowledged in the
past.
124
And
finally, I will attempt to set the proverbs on the subject of
innocent suffering or
righteous suffering in a correct literary structure and
genre, which will give
a theological foundation to many of the sayings and
avoid treating
individual proverbs in isolation.
125
CHAPTER THREE
PARENTAL SUFFERING IN PROVERBS
Introduction
The role of Yahweh as divine parent and the covenant
relationship
form the foundation for
this part of the study. Since the parental image is of
utmost importance for
this study it will be necessary briefly to establish
family terminology and
roles as portrayed in the OT.
The image of Yahweh as divine parent leads to the question
of the use
and setting of the
instruction genre, another prominent feature of wisdom
materials. Quite often
in the prophetic corpus
Yahweh's child,
straying from the instruction given to the nation. This
image can be seen very
prominenetly in Isa 1:2-3, as well as Hos 11, and Jer
3:4, 19-20. In the Torah Deut 32 contains this image. A
related issue has
to do with education in
ancient
yniB;,
which is ubiquitous in the first nine chapters of Proverbs. Is this
address a metaphor for
teachers, hence indicative of a formal school
setting, or should it
be taken literally and the educational setting be seen in
the home?
The second part of this chapter will examine individual
proverbs that
specifically deal with
parental suffering.
I.
Parents in the OT
It will be important for this part of the study to discuss
the social
backgrounds and
cultural settings for the family. This will enable us better
to understand the
individual proverbs which make reference to parental
suffering.
A. Social Structure and Duties
Granting that there was some fluidity in the way
the terms
were used over time it
is still necessary to give a basic discussion of kin
group terminology.
1. Structure of Kin Groups
The nomenclature of ancient
structure was
perceived. A reading of Josh 7:16-18 shows this clearly:
Early the next morning Joshua had
and
took the Zerahites. He had the clan of
the Zorahites come forward by
families, and Zimri was taken. Joshua
had his family come forward
man by man, and Achan son of Carmi,
the son of Zimri, the son of
Zorah, of the tribe of
This passage tells of
the search for the guilty party responsible for the defeat
of the Israelite army
in the attack on Ai. The nation is presented tribe by
tribe (Fb,we) and one clan (hHAPAw;mi) is designated. Then out of this
clan a
family (bxA-tyBe) is chosen. Out of the chosen
"father's house" an individual
is selected, then his
identification is made using these terms in the reverse
order).1 The
offender is first identified by name and parent ("Achan son of
Carmi"), then by
family ("son of Zimri"), followed by his clan ("son of
Zorah") and tribe
("of the tribe of
1 Christopher J. H. Wright, "Family," ABD, 2.761.
127
a. Tribe Fb,we, hF,.ma
The tribe was the broadest unit of
social and
territorial
organization in ancient
of Jacob/Israel, with
the tribe of Joseph being divided into Ephraim and
Manasseh (Gen 48-49;
cf. Josh 13-14). While the tribe formed the basis for
the military levy (Num
1; 26) it was the least important for determining
kinship. At the head of
every tribe was the xyWinA.2
However, the tribes
were not equal in
population, size or amount of territory they possessed.3
Essentially, according
to G. E. Mendenhall, the tribe was an "administra-
tive unit,"4
but cautions modern readers not to assume that "tribe" in
English always
communicates the meaning of Fb,we.5
b. Clan hHAPAw;mi
Land was allotted in ancient Israel MtAHoP;w;mil;,
"according to
their clans" (Josh 13:15, 24, 29, 31; Num 33:54).6 The
primary significance of
the term hHAPAw;mi
is that (1) it functions as the term
of kinship between the
family (bxA-tyBe, see below) and
the tribe (Fb,we,
HF,.ma),
2 Num 7:2; 31:13; 32:2; Exod
22:27[28]. See H.-W. Wolff, Anthropolo-
gy of the Old
Testament
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974), 215; cf. H. J. Zobel,
"Fb,we, sebaet," TWAT, vol. 7 (1993), 971, citing de Vaux: "De Vaux (26)
schlagt
fur den Stammesfuhrer den Titel nasi'
vor." For detailed
information
on the various terms of tribal and clan leadership see H. Reviv,
The Elders of
Ancient
3 Barry L. Bandstra,
"Tribe," ISBE, vol. 4
(1988), 905.
4 G. E. Mendenhall,
"Social Organization in Early
nalia Dei: The
Mighty Acts of God,
ed. F. M. Cross, W. E. Lemke, and P. D.
Miller,
Jr. (Garden City: Doubleday & Co., 1976), 146.
5 Mendenhall, "Social
Organization," 146-147.
6 C. J. H. Wright, God's People in God's Land (
Eerdmans,
1990), 48.
128
and (2) serves as a territorial designation.
In a social context the hHAPAw;mi
was the most important unit of
organization.7
It also served as a territorial
designation since it has been
shown to function as a
technical term in hereditary land tenure.8
Francis I. Andersen has
shown that this territorial association in a
person's kin group was
the virtual equivalent to a geographical address.9
The hHAPAw;mi
was the broadest unit of recognized kinship, thus it is not
surprising that the
economic and social practices within this group were
based on blood
relationship, since the individual Israelite found his or her
identity as a member of
the covenant community through the obligations
placed on them within
the hHAPAw;mi and the bxA-tyBe.10 One of the most far-
reaching roles within
the clan was the protection offered by the lxeGo,
who
avenged the murder of a
kinsman (Num 35), raised up a male heir for a
deceased relative (Deut
25:5-10), redeemed land for a kinsman who had
been forced to sell
land due to harsh circumstances (Lev 25:23-.28), and
maintained or redeemed
a kinsman or dependents of a kinsman in debt
(Lev 25:35-55).11
7 C. H. J. de Geus, The Tribes of Israel (Assen: van Gorcum,
1976),
137.
8 William Johnstone,
"Old Testament Technical Expressions in
Property
Holding: Contributions from
9 F.
ture,"
Bible Translator 20 (1969): 36.
10 Wright,
"Family," 763.
11 See Donald A. Leggett, The Levirate and Goel Instiitutions in the
Old Testament (Cherry Hill:
Mack, 1974), 83-137; and Jeremiah Unterman,
"The
Social-Legal Origin for the Image of God as Redeemer lxvg of
in
Pomegranates and Golden Bells: Studies in
Biblical, Jewish and Near
129
The clan also provided a military unit known as the Jl,x,, essentially
the "kin
group-at-arms," the complement of troops provided by a kin group
for the tribal levy.12
The word Jl,x,
is traditionally translated "one
thousand"
but other studies suggest that it is not a fixed number.13
In summary, the hHaPAw;mi
existed for the well being and protection of
its family members. It
attempted to provide stable conditions whereby
mutual help was given
to those in need.
c. Family bxA-tyBe
Each individual was a member of a tyiBa or bxA-tyBe
an extended family made
up of all the descendants of a single living
ancestor, sometimes
called the bxA-tyBe-wxro.
The wxro
participated in
leadership activities
at the family level of social organization, and a select
group of these
individuals exercised leadership over the clan. These
collective bodies were
known as "elders."14 The bxA-tyBe
included this
Eastern Ritual,
Law and Literature in Honor of Jacob Milgrom, ed. D. P.
Wright
et al. (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 399-405, for a discussion of
these
roles.
12 Wright, God's People, 72.
13 Bandstra,
"Tribe," 905; see also G. E. Mendenhall, "The Census
Lists
of Numbers 1 and 26, JBL 77 (1958):
52-66; and Norman K. Gottwald,
The Tribes of
Yahweh (Maryknoll:
Orbis, 1979), 270-276.
14 Reviv, Elders, 11. There is a great deal of
overlap between wxr
and
the office of Nqz, see 15-20. Summarizing Reviv's
findings, "heads"
were
the leaders ("elders") at the sub-tribal and settlement levels, or
parallel
to "chiefs" at the tribal level. However, "elders" are
second in rank
to
the "head" in the sense of "chief" when these terms are
both mentioned in
a
particular context. The use of the various titles of tribal heads such as
"heads
of the fathers," "heads of the father's houses" and "heads
of the
people
of
elders
(21).
130
man's wife or wives,
his sons and their wives, his grandsons and their
wives, plus any
unmarried sons or daughters in these groups along with
the nonrelated
dependents.15
This social unit was the basic unit of land tenure since
(ideally) each
one had its own hlAHEna which was kept in the bxA-tyBE, and the hHAPAw;mi if
possible.16
Thus ownership of land was protected by the principle of
inalienability; the
rule that the land should remain in the family to which it
had been apportioned,
and could not be sold permanently outside the
family.17
The bxA-tyBe
was one of the main spheres where justice was a
concern, both
internally, where disputes and problems of marriage and
divorce were settled as
well as parental discipline enforced, and externally,
15 Married daughters were
not included since they became members
of
their husband's bxA-tyBe, see Wright, "Family,"
762. Exceptions did
occur.
Note the case of Jacob, who went to become part of Laban's bxA-tyBe
Gen
28:2. There is also the unusual statement in Gen 2:24 where it is the
man
who leaves his father and mother when he takes a wife, which may
be
a reference to erebu marriage in
which the man leaves his family and
lives
with, his wife's family, see C. H. Gordon, "Ereebu Marriage," in
Studies on, the
Civilization and Culture of Nuzu and the Hurrians. In
Honor of Ernest
R. Lachemann,
ed. M. Morrison and D. Owens (
logically,
see M. M. Bravmann, Studies in Semitic
Philology (
1977),
593-595.
16 Extenuating
circumstances might force the sale of land but there
was
no real estate market. The case of Abraham (Gen 23) is unusual and
an
act of generosity by Ephron the Hittite.
17 Wright,
"Family," 763-764. Incidents at Shechem (Gen 35), Beth-
lehem
(Ruth 4) and Jezreel (1 Kgs 21) show that the whole town had an
interest
in the various transactions involving property. Note Abraham's
recognition
as bwAOT
in the example cited in the note above (Gen 23:4).
131
since the bxA-tyBe functioned in solidarity in
relation to outside groups, e. g.,
all members of the bxA-tyBe; were shamed by the misconduct of
any member.
This is of great
importance in the book of Proverbs since parents are placed
in a position of high
authority. Some of the proverbs associated with
parental discipline
will be an integral part of the discussion below.
Another important function of the family was that of
preserving the
continuity of the
faith, the law, and traditions. Here the primary responsi-
bility lay with the
parents, especially the father, to pass along to the
children the law of Yahweh
as well as the explanations for the various
observances and rituals
(Deut 6:1-9, 20-25; etc.). In this way the "faith of the
fathers" was
preserved from one generation to the next (Ps 78).
It is this didactic function of the parents which gains emphasis
in
the book of Proverbs,
especially in chapters 1-9, with the recurring
instructional address yniB;.18 One of the emphases in
Proverbs is for the
children to observe or
pay attention to the instruction of the parents. Those
who reject their parents'
teaching are sometimes branded fools who bring
sorrow and pain to parents. These proverbs will be discussed
below.
2. Roles of Individuals
The discussion here will not attempt to go beyond
details
necessary to give
sufficient background for the main study
a. Father
In ancient
the father. He
possessed a great deal of authority over the lives of his sons
18 See 1:8, 10, 15; 2:1;
3:1, 11, 21; 4:10, 20; 5:1; 6:1, 3; etc. The plural
MyniBA
occurs in 4:1; 5:7; 7:24; etc.
132
and daughters. He could
sell a daughter into slavery (Exod 2:1:7), have a
son stoned to death if
he attempted to lead people away from the worship of
Yahweh (Deut 13:6-10)
or insisted on acting rebelliously as a drunkard or
glutton (Deut
21:18-21). The father could also take away the birthright of the
firstborn (Gen 35:22;
49:4; 1 Chr 5:1) although favoritism was prohibited
(Deut 21:15-17).
However, this does not mean the father's power and
authority was unlimited
and absolute, and he was not a despot.19 The
power of life and death
over family members shows that the security and
stability of the family
as a whole was valued more highly than one of its
members, especially if
that member's behavior seriously threatened the
substance of the
family. For example, rebellious and irresponsible behavior
on the part of a son
showed that he was incapable of being entrusted with
his inheritance.20
Fathers also had the responsibility to love, care for and
protect their
children (Deut 1:31; Ps
103:13; cf. Job 1:5; Jer 47:3; Hos 11:1-3). Other
responsibilities
included ,training and education (Deut 4:9; 6:7; Prov 1:8;
22:6) as well as
discipline (Prov 13:24; 19:18; 23:13-14).
b. Mother
The mother's primary role revolved
around child-
birth and nurturing the
children. Motherhood was considered honorable
and desirable. Those
women who were unable to bear children were often
portrayed in pain over
it (1 Sam 1:4-11; cf. Ps 113:9; Isa 54:1).
19 Victor H. Matthews and
Don C. Benjamin, Social World of Ancient
20 Wright,
"Family," 767.
133
Biblical
society was clearly male-centered and families were patri-
archal.21
However, the Bible itself grants women much more access to the
administrative,
judicial and economic systems than many of today's
generalizations about
women and the Bible acknowledge.22
The mother's authority in the household was generally
significant in
the areas of
decision-making and she was often the one who took the initia-
tive in directing the
affairs of the family. For example, Sarah demanded
that Hagar be expelled
from camp despite Abraham's misgivings (Gen
21:10); Rebekah
arranged for the blessing to be conferred on Jacob rather
than Esau (Gen
27:5-17); Abigail interceded on behalf of her household (1
Sam 25:14-35) and
Bathsheba intervened on behalf of Solomon (1 Kgs 1:11-
31).23
In Proverbs the father is primarily the parent responsible
for
instructing children,
but mothers are included on occasion (cf. 1:8; 6:20;
30:17; 31:1 where
mother occurs alone).
In her status as a mother she was to be obeyed and regarded
with
honor, just as a father
would be (Exod 20:12//Deut 5:16; Lev 19:3). These
21 A patriarchy has two
distinguishing features. Wives go to live in
their
husband's households and the heir of the household must be a
natural
or adopted son of the father, see Matthews and Benjamin, Social
World, 23.
22 Matthews and Benjamin, Social World, 22.
23 See C. J. Vos,
"Mother," ISBE., vol. 3
(1986), 427. For a discussion
of
the equal role of women in authority over the household see Claudia V.
Camp,
Wisdom and the Feminine in the Book of
Proverbs (
Almond,
1985), 79-90. Another projection of the normal role of the mother
in
the home is the positive image of wisdom as hostess in Prov 9, cf. Prov 31.
134
passages, part of the
Ten Commandments and the Holiness Code respec-
tively, use different
terminology and word order to set forth the guidelines
on treatment of
parents. A comparison of the texts shows this clearly:
Exod 20:12//Deut 5:16
j~m,.xi-tx,v; j~ybixA-tx, dBeKa
Lev 19:2 UxrAyTi vybixAv; Om.xi wyxi
The order of the
wording in Lev 19:2 is unusual in that the direct object is
placed between the
subject and the verb. Several ancient versions (includ-
ing LXX, Syriac, and
Vulgate) invert the order of the text so that "father"
appears before
"mother," possibly to conform to other similar texts where
father is listed first.24
The word order may also be significant in that
mother is placed first
to show that she is not considered a secondary
authority in the home or
due a lesser amount of respect than the father.
The use of the root xry "to fear" is also unusual,
since it is found most often
with God as the object.
In this commandment, "fear" refers to a child's
acknowledgment of
parental authority,25 since a society without police,
probation officers, or
a professional court system depended more on disci-
pline within the family
than on authority outside the family structure.
The issue of treatment of parents is the subject of many
proverbs,
some of which will be
discussed below.
24 See John E. Hartley, Leviticus, WBC vol. 4 (Dallas: Word,
1992),
304.
This reversal of terms is also true of Lev 21:2 and Ezek 16:45.
25 Hartley, Leviticus,
312-313.
135
c.
Children
In ancient
mark of divine favor
and blessing, greatly to be desired (Gen 15:2; 30:1; 1
Sam 1:11, 20; Ps
127:3-5). The birth of a male child was met with a more
positive response
because it marked an additional future worker to support
the bx-tyBe and another defender of the hHAPAw;mi. It also helped insure that
the family name would
be kept alive.
As indicated above, parents had God-given authority over
their
children, as signified
by references to the rod, Fb,we (Prov
13:24; 22:15; 23:13-
14; 29:15), the same
word translated "scepter" in Gen 49:10; Num 24:17; Ps
45:6; etc., a symbol of
authority, and identical to one of the words for "tribe."
Children were expected to honor and respect their parents, who
in
turn were required to
provide for and protect them. Education and training
were also part of the
parental duties. Many of the proverbs which refer to
these issues will be
part of the study below.
The OT speaks of the grief parents experienced over the
loss of a child
showing that the love
between parents and children went beyond that of
their status as the
father's legal property, since the OT places a great deal
more emphasis on the
father's responsibility and feelings for his children
than on his rights over
them. There are many examples of this: Jacob
mourning over the
perceived death of Joseph (Gen 37:34); David's earnest
prayer for the child of
Bathsheba (2 Sam 12:15-17, 22-24); his grief over the
deaths of Amnon and
Absalom (2 Sam 13:30-38; 18:33); and Job's grief over
the loss of his
children (Job 1:20-21). But it went beyond grief. There are
136
also narratives which
show the lack of parental guidance or rebellious
behavior by children as
is seen in the stories of David's children, Eli's sons
and Samuel's sons.
There is also the unusual story of the two women who
come to Solomon arguing
over the possession of a baby, the real mother
eventually choosing to
give up her rights to the child for the sake of its life.
The most common picture
of the parent-child relationship in the OT con-
tains little or no
emphasis on legal status. The few texts which treat
children this way gain
prominence in the scholarly literature but they are
far outweighed by other
texts which show human love, care or other family
feelings and conflicts.
The issue of legal status is rarely raised.
There are also passages which express God's sorrow or
consterna-
tion over
of father-son26
or husband-wife.27 This shows that the covenant relation-
ship, though partly
modeled on the treaties used in international politics,
also drew on models
with more personal overtones.
B. The Family as a Setting for Wisdom
Under this heading two basic issues will be
addressed. First,
the origin of family or
clan wisdom will be discussed, with its implications
of parents as teachers
and how this applies to the book of Proverbs. In other
words, is the
expression "my son(s)" literal or figurative? Then, second, the
purpose of family or
clan wisdom will be examined, where it will be shown
26 Deut 32:18-20; Hos 11;
Is 1:2-3 (cf. 64:7[8]); Jer 3:4„ 19-20 (cf. 31:18-
20);
Ps 103:7-18. The parental figure is lacking in Ps 78:40-41 but emotive
terms
are present.
27 Hos 1-3; Jer 2:31-32;
3:1, 4 (Jer 3 uses the images of child and wife);
31:32;
etc.
137
that there were
proverbs directed at parents as well as children. The point
here will be to show
that the wisdom of Proverbs had young people as one of
its primary audiences,
but more mature adults were not excluded.
1. The Origin of Family Wisdom
Discussions on the sources of proverbs
commonly desig-
nate three basic points
of origin: (1) clan or family, (2) court and (3)
school.28
The oldest of these is seen as family, clan or folk wisdom.
Since our knowledge of formal education in ancient
sparse we can only draw
implications for the existence of educational
institutions from the
large numbers of government officials needed to run
the machinery of the
monarchy, basing this inference on analogies from
surrounding countries
where academies were known to have existed.29
This was the
predominant view for several years, and it was claimed by its
adherents that
analogies could be drawn from the more civilized cultures of
28 See e. g., D. A.
Hubbard, "Proverb," ISBE,
vol. 3 (1986), 1614-1015;
James
L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An
Introduction (
John
Knox, 1981), 56-57; and R. E. Clements, Wisdom
in Theology (Grand
Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1992), 22-24.
29 This view was championed
by G. von Rad, "Der Anfang der
Geschichtsschreibung
im alten
(1944):
1-42; translated as "The Beginnings of Historical Writing in Ancient
&
Boyd, 1966), 166-204. For Sumerian scholastic institutions see S. N.
Kramer,
History Begins at
Pennsylvania
Press, 1981), 3-9; J. J. A. van Dijk, La
sagesse sumero
accadienne (Leiden: Brill,
1953), 21-27; for Assyrian and Babylonian educa-
tion
see B. Meissner, Babylonien and Assyrien
II (
ters
Universitatsbuchhandlung, 1925), 324-330.
138
corners on this scene
but good imitators. As a rising political power,
developed a complex
administration manned by civil servants or court
scribes who maintained
close contact with their international opposite
numbers. A scribal
class from the Canaanite cities had been absorbed into
the service of the
government in the early Israelite monarchy, thus
Proverbs was
essentially "school wisdom," being a product of the cultural
revolution or a
"Solomonic Enlightenment" which marked a sharp break
from the ancient
patriarchal code of living.30
There are many references to kings in chapters 10-29. The
instruc-
tional addresses and
the references to the royal court in Proverbs could be
present in order to
show that the king was expected to be an exemplary
father, first to the
whole family but also to all people. The hierarchy of
fatherhood would be as
follows:
30 Von Rad,
"Historical Writing," 204. For a critique of von Rad's
position
see R. N. Whybray, "Wisdom Literature in the Reigns of David and
Solomon,"
in Studies in the Period of David and
Solomon and Other Essays,
ed.
T. Ishida (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1982), 13-26.
139
God as
father
(especially of
the king)
|
King
as father
/ \
/ \
His family His
people
|
Human father
|
His family
But this does not
necessarily show that these sayings originated in the royal
court.
The assumption that Egyptian wisdom literature was the work
of
scribes attached to the
royal court is not altogether accurate. The scribal
profession was not
confined to government service. It was widespread
throughout the country
and essential to the efficient conduct of economic
and business affairs.
Early Egyptian instructions claimed to have been
written by court
officials (or even by the king), but many were not. From the
standing. One of these
is Amenemope, whose author was of middle or
lower rank on the
social and professional scale.31 A similar observation
can be made regarding
31 Hellmut Brunner, Altagyptische Weisheit: Lehren fur das Leben
(Zurich: Artemis
Verlag, 1988), 62-75, 236-237.
140
guilds of scribes based
in the large temples, which essentially functioned as
cultural centers.32
But three recent essays on sages in the ancient world
make no mention of the
writing of wisdom books, although their roles as
statesmen and royal
advisors are emphasized.33
Stuart Weeks has also called into question the notion of
proverbs
being composed by and
for the royal court.34 His conclusions are based on
the suspect nature of
the superscriptions in Proverbs, the small number of
proverbs associated
with the royal court and the varieties of opinions
expressed regarding the
king.35 Here he follows the studies of Golka,
stating that the
proverbs which make reference to the king and court do not
necessarily originate
there. In 1983 Golka took the position that the lack of
references to schools
in the OT was sufficient proof for their non-existence,
thus the whole
hypothesis of the existence of schools was a figment of
scholarly imaginaition.36
Golka's studies are based on a comparison of
proverbs from
proverbs" from
Whether critical or
sympathetic to the king or the court they were the views
of the common
individual who observes but is not associated with the
32 W G. Lambert, BWL, 8, 13-14.
33 R. J. Williams,
"The Functions of the Sage in the Egyptian Royal
Court,"
in The Sage in
and
L. G. Perdue (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 95-98; see also in the
same
volume R. F. G. Sweet, "The Sage in Mesopotamian Palaces and
Royal
Courts," 99-107; and Loren R. Mack-Fisher, "The Scribe (and Sage) in
the
34 Stuart Weeks, Early Israelite Wisdom (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1994).
35 Weeks, Wisdom, 41-48.
36 F. W. Golka, "Die
israelitische Weisheitsschule oder ‘des Kaisers
neue
Kleider,’" VT 33 (1983):
257-271.
141
court.37
Some have criticized Golka's views, saying that many of his so-
called parallels are
dubious.38 It can be questioned whether an African
proverb, however close,
is evidence of the origin of an Israelite folk saying.
Also, the communities
from which the parallels were taken are not pre-
literate, thus there is
not a good social parallel. A further complication is
the fact that if the
parallel is too close there may be Biblical influence,
which is entirely
possible in modern African traditions.
Another perspective on the scarcity of direct references to
schools in
ancient
the need to mention
what was obvious to all.39 The recovery of written
exercises may be due to
the accidents of archaeology and the highly perish-
able nature of papyrus
and leather, thus the materials these exercises were
written on have never
been found.40 However, one can also point to the
relatively few explicit
references to schools in
learning by the scribes
of
37 F. W. Golka, "Die
Konigs- and Hofspruche und der Unsprung der
israelitischen
Weisheit," VT 36 (1986): 13-36.
38 M. V. Fox, "The
Social Location of the Book of Proverbs," in Texts.
(Winona
Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996), 234-235.
39 Andre Lemaire, "The
Sage in School and
(Winona
Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 171. For an evaluation of Lemaire's
arguments
see G. I. Davies, "Were There
Schools in Ancient
Wisdom in
Ancient
Williamson
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 199-211.
40 Unless the
"exercises."
142
not necessarily to be
viewed so negatively.41 Both in
the best evidence for
scribal education is its literary fruit and the existence
of a complex government
bureaucracy.42 In a comparison of Proverbs and
Egyptian wisdom
materials Nili Shupak has shown that the vocabulary of
the sages in the OT has
semantic equivalents in terms normally associated
with schools in
were inspired by
Egyptian models, and that the book of Proverbs provided
some of the learning
material in these schools.43
Thus the debate goes on, and the problem is too complex to
solve here.
It is clear that
solving the problem of schools in ancient
do with how
"school" is defined. While most of the evidence for formal
classroom instruction
in the scribal art is the existing literature and the
testimonies of the
Hebrew Bible to the government bureaucracies of the
monarchy, this does not
exclude the possibility of simple classes in literacy
being carried out
within the individual families. Thus far no theory of
education or training
has been able to account for the existing materials
and we are left with
the conclusion, unsatisfying as it may be, that there
were various ways in
which education took place in ancient Israel.44
41 M. V. Fox, "Social
Location," 229, points out that there is no direct
evidence
for schools in postexilic
one
would claim that he invented them.
42 E. W. Heaton, Solomon's New Men (New York: Pica,
1975), 108.
Cf.
also Weeks, Wisdom, 132.
43 Nili Shupak, "The ‘Sitz
im Leben’ of the Book of Proverbs in the
Light
of a Comparison of Biblical and Egyptian Wisdom Literature," RB 94
(1987):
104, 117; affirmed by Fox, "Social Location," 229, n. 7.
44 See the assessment of J.
L. Crenshaw, "Education in Ancient
143
In contrast to the
paucity of evidence for court wisdom, folk (clan or
popular) wisdom can be
found quoted in both narrative and prophetic
literature, as well as
in the wisdom corpus. This list would be very lengthy
if one was made.45
Though none of the sayings outside of Proverbs has bearing
on a
specific family or clan
matter it seems a point of assumption that these
sayings can be
classified as folk or family wisdom.46 Yet when the discus-
sion turns to sayings
that are specifically family oriented, the examples are
rare outside the book
of Proverbs.47 Equating oral proverbs with tribal or
clan law was a position
developed by J.-P. Audet,48 H. W. Wolff,49 and E.
Gerstenberger,50
who saw essentially that the origin of Israelite wisdom
literature was not in
generalized popular proverbs but in a pre-literary and
pre-urban oral
instruction developed in a tribal society, with the authority of
45 See Carol R. Fontaine, Traditional Sayings in the Old Testament
(Sheffield:
Almond, 1982).
46 Note the statement of C.
R. Fontaine in her essay "The Sage in
Family
and Tribe," in The Sage in
J.
G. Gammie and L. G. Perdue (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 155:
"...used
by persons in tribal leadership..."
47 See the discussions of
Hubbard, "Proverb," 1014;
dom and Theology, 123-150;
Fontaine, "Sage," 158-163.
48 "Origines comparees
de la double tradition de la loi et de la sagesse
dans
le proche-orient ancien," in Proceedings
of the International Congress
of Orientalists,
49 Amos' geistige Heimet, WMANT 18 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neu-
kirchener
Verlag, 1964).
50 Wesen and Herkunft des "apodiktischen Rechts", WMANT 20
(Neukirchen-Vluyn:
Neukirchener Verlag, 1965). His ideas had already
been
expressed in his earlier article "The Woe-Oracles of the Prophets,"
JBL
81
(1962): 249-263.
144
patriarchal fathers or
tribal leaders, based on the accumulated experience
of the past and having
something of the force of law. The position was held
that wisdom and law had
a common origin as regulators of the mores of
society.51
Family wisdom was designed to train the young in clan mores
and
practices, work ethics,
respect for authority and acceptable behavior.52
Parents, especially in
the early years of a child's life, were the primary
teachers and fulfilled
that role for as long as needed, whether this was until
the children could be
trained in a more formal setting, such as a school (by
whatever definition is
accepted); or until they were old enough to assume
family responsibilities
of their own. However, the honoring of parents was
a lifelong obligation.
The fifth commandment, "honor your father and your
mother," is never
outgrown.
a. Parents as Teachers
Though this has been discussed earlier
it bears
mention once again to
emphasize the importance of this role in ancient
Proverbs.
Outside of the book of Proverbs one of the most important
texts for
teaching children is
Deut 6, much of which was taken literally in the
ancient practice of
Hebrew religion, especially the commands in vv. 8-9.
The questions of
children that may arise in the future are addressed in vv.
51 For discussion and a
short list of those in disagreement see R. N.
Whybray,
The Book of Proverbs: A Survey of Modern
Study (
1995),
26-29.
52 Hubbard,
"Proverb," 1014.
145
20-21 and it is significant
that this instruction stands as the centerpiece of
the literary structure
of Deut 6:4-7:11.53 The placement of the command to
"teach your
children" shows the importance of this idea to the structure of
this section of
Deuteronomy. Events recorded in the book of Exodus are
specifically referred
to in Deut 6:20ff. and encouragements to teach children
are also found in that
book, see Exod 10:2; 12:26-27; 13:8, 14.
Another text which places primary importance on the
instruction of
children is Ps 78,
which is often tied to wisdom literature because of the use
of lwAmA and tOdyHi
in v. 2, cf. Prov 1:6. Even though the psalm has often been
classified as an
historical psalm, a "didactic accent" can be detected
throughout.54
The lengthy introduction of Ps 78 forms a setting for the
psalm in which vv. 4-6
emphasize the importance of teaching children the
lessons learned from
past mistakes so future generations will not repeat
them. It is interesting
to note that we see references to God's anger and
grief over
humans are not the only
ones who suffer pain innocently, or due to the
actions of others.55
53 Duane L. Christensen, Deuteronomy 1-11, WBC vol. 6a (
Word,
1991), 138. Deut 4:9 also has an injunction to teach children but it is
not
the focus of the literary structure of Deut 4, see Christensen's outline
and
discussion, 71-73.
54 H.-J. Kraus, Psalms 60-150: A Commentary, tr. H. C.
Oswald
(Minneapolis:
Augsburg, 1989), 122. Kraus observes that the content of the
psalm
designates it as an historical psalm, yet it has an introduction (vv. 1-
2)
which announces a wisdom poem, and in v. 4 the reference to Yahweh's
great
salvific deeds is similar to a hymnic introit.
55 Cf. Num 14:22 and Is
63:7-10. For a detailed analysis of this
phenomenon
see T. E. Fretheim, The Suffering of God:
An Old Testament
146
The
book of Joel begins similarly, with a call to "tell it to your
children" (1:2-3)
regarding the lessons learned, although this text cannot be
seen as a definitive
statement regarding educational practices in
The use of
"elders" and "all who live in the land" may be a hendiadys
for
saying
"everyone" rather than a specific setting for education by the
elders.
So both parents were charged with the upbringing, care and
training
of children, although
in many texts the father seems to be the one given the
larger share of the
responsibility.
b. "My Son(s)"--Literal or Figurative?
An important question related to the
issue of
family wisdom and the
interpretation of Proverbs is that of the use of the
instructional address
"my son(s)." ANE sources provide us with texts in
which the teacher was
referred to as "father" while the student was
addressed as "(my)
son."56
This particular address is lacking in Egyptian instructions
except in
P. inv. Sorbonne 1260,
line 7, a late demotic work dating to about the third
century B.C.57
Amenemhet
as a parallel since it does not introduce words of advice.58
Perspective
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984).
56 Lemaire, "Sage in
School and
Concept
‘Father’ in the Wisdom Literature of the Ancient Near East," JNSL
5
(1977): 59. A brief list of examples can be found on 60-61.
57 John Day, "Foreign
Semitic Influence on the Wisdom of
Wisdom in
Ancient
Williamson
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 65.
58 Day, "Foreign
Semitic Influence," 65, n. 36; cf. Weeks, Wisdom, 15.
For
the text of Amenemhet see ANET, 419.
147
However, in my
estimation, the location of the expression near the end of
the document seems to
imply its application to the entire work, hence Day's
criticism is somewhat
weakened. The late date of this document may make
this work of dubious
value as a comparison to Israelite literature if the
early dates for
Proverbs are accepted.
Murphy takes this address (specifically Prov 1:8) as
denoting the
reader of the book of
Proverbs, thus placing the instruction tied to parents
as a metaphor for
wisdom teachers.59 This would have the effect of
making the book of
Proverbs a book of instruction used in a formal educa-
tional setting. Some do
not see the necessity of requiring a school setting
due to the address,
regardless of whether it is singular or plural, and place
the instructional Sitz im Leben in the home rather than a
school.60
The plural address does not exclude parental training since
there
may be more than one
child in a family and the remembrance expressed in
4:3, for example, seems
to have a family setting in view. Murphy's position
would be easier to
accept if it were not for the occurrence of "mother." The
teacher-pupil
relationship was often modeled on the father-son relation-
ship but the lack of
reference to formal training in ancient
tion to the use of
"mother" seems to make it more difficult to hold to an
59 R. E. Murphy, The Tree of Life (New York: Doubleday
& Co., 1990),
16.
It might be better to include "listener" in this sentence since the
audience
may not always have possessed sufficient literacy skills to read
the
material.
60 See R. N. Whybray, Proverbs, NCBC (
1994),
37, 76; Duane A. Garrett, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes. Song of Songs, NAC
vol.
14 (Nashville: Broadman, 1993), 87; William L. McKane, Proverbs: A
New Approach, OTL (Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1970), 303.
148
academy setting for the
proverbs. This would include both the royal school
and the community
school. Again, these questions of the existence of
schools are difficult
to answer due to the lack of evidence. To what extent
there were community
schools is virtually impossible to say. If Lemaire's
evidence is accepted as
valid, then the most we can draw from this is
rudimentary training in
literacy, since his evidence seems to consist
primarily of crude
alphabet exercises. It is difficult to postulate a highly
trained, literate
society from the hard evidence. As Whybray observes, it is
a far cry from writing
the alphabet to reading and writing advanced
literary wisdom texts
such as the book of Proverbs.61
Because of this lack of evidence, the best we can say is
that the book of
Proverbs seems to hold
to a family setting for education and training. Thus
I would take the
occurrences of family terminology such as "mother,"
"father" and
"son(s)" literally, at least in their original formulation. There
may have been a time
and place when these terms, especially "father" and
"(my) son,"
were used metaphorically for the teacher-pupil relationship in
an instructional setting
but we are at a loss to know the specifics of the
location(s) or the
date(s) for these uses.
2. The Purpose of Family Wisdom
As mentioned above, family wisdom functioned pri-
marily to reinforce
roles which various members of a family, clan or com-
munity were encouraged
to play. As might be expected, there were
guidelines given to
parents and children both.
61 Whybray, Survey,
25.
149
a.
Proverbs Directed Toward Children
There are a great many of these clue to
the
necessity of teaching
children how to carry out tasks involved in everyday
living and relating to
other people at an individual level and community
level. In fact,
virtually all of Solomon A62 could be said to be directed
toward children due to
the ubiquitous "my son(s)." However, this might be
too generalized, and
the word "children" may leave an impression that is
not completely
accurate. The presence of so many warnings about sexual
conduct, highway
robbery (1:10-19), the firstfruit offering (3:9), relationships
with the community
(3:28ff.), etc., probably removes this material from the
normal sphere of
"children" and makes the target audience teenagers at
the youngest, and
covering a broader range of age than is usually
associated with a
"child." While this material
seems to find its setting in
parental instruction,
the possibilities must be left open that training in a
formalized sense made
use of this material as well. The date and editorial
process in relation to
it is too vast and complex a topic to address here.
In Solomon B there are several sayings addressed to sons or
dealing
with issues which
assume this context. Many will be part of the exegetical
section below because
they deal specifically with parental suffering. There
are four proverbs which
are addressed to offspring, two of which are
concerned with
discipline (13:1; 19:27), one which encourages good behavior
in order to avoid
forfeiting the inheritance (11:29) and another proverb
which tells a child (rfana) he can be identified by his actions
(20:11).
62 I am using the terms
Solomon A to refer to chapters 1-9, Solomon
B for 10:1-22:16, and
Solomon C for chapters 25-29.
150
In
the Sayings of the Wise (22:17-24:22) there are three longer
instructions all
addressed to "my son:" 23:15-28; 24:1344; 24:21-22. Even
though most scholars
see parallels between Amenemope and
this section
of Proverbs there are
no direct links with the passages which refer to
parents or children.63
This is not surprising when the setting of
Amenemope reflects the
education of an official rather than education
taking place
specifically in the home.64
In Solomon C there are two proverbs which will be specifically
discussed below due to
their reference to parental suffering or abuse of
parents by a child.
There are also two others which refer to the parent-
child relationship
without reference to suffering. One is 27:11, which
encourages wisdom on
the part of the son so the father can be joyful
regarding the answer he
gives to any possible detractor. This proverb is
unusual due to its
first person perspective. Then there is a saying in 29:3
which is similar in
message to 27:11 in its first line and the second line
warns against
squandering wealth on prostitutes, a warning similar to
those found in Solomon
A.
In the last two collections, the Sayings of Agur (30:1-33)
and the
Sayings of King Lemuel
(31:1-9, or 1-31 if the acrostic on the noble wife is
included), there are no
proverbs addressed to children.
b. Proverbs Directed Toward Parents
As might be expected under this
category there is
63 McKane, Proverbs, 377, 385; Whybray, Proverbs, 323; Garrett, Pro-
verbs,
Ecclesiastes,
193.
64 See McKane, Proverbs, 105-108.
151
a strong emphasis on
the importance of discipline. Four of the eight
proverbs in Solomon B
addressed to parents make reference to discipline.
The word rsAUm is found in 13:24 and 22:15; rse.ya in 19:18; and training, j`noHE,
in 22:6. In every case
the priority seems to be actions which are ultimately
best for the child.
Rather than portraying the child as property, Proverbs
places primary
importance on the responsibility of parents to ensure the
child's eventual
assumption of appropriate roles within the bxA-tyBe
and the
community.
Of the remaining four proverbs, two contain an element of
providing
care and security for
children (13:22; 14:26), while 15:27 is essentially the
flip side of the coin,
telling of the problems a greedy person might bring
upon his house. Then
17:6 comments on the reciprocal value which
members of the family
should place on each other.
The only other place where parents are addressed in
Proverbs is
found in the Sayings of
the Wise. In 23:13-14 parents are encouraged to
discipline a child (rfana), harking back to similar ideas found
in 13:24; 19:18;
22:15. The admonitions
in 23:13-14 contain some striking parallels to
Ahiqar 81-82:
Prov 23:13-14: :tUmyA xlo Fb,we.ba Un.K,ta-yKi rsAUm rfana.mi fnam;Ti-lxa
:lyc.iTa lOxw;.mi Owp;nav; Un.K,Ta Fb,we.Ba hTAxa
152
Ahiqar
81-82: Nh rFh Nm jrb jwHht lx
yh]nlcnht lhkt xl Vl
[xtwxb Nm
yrb jnxHmx Nh
tvmt xl
jbbl lfvqbwx Nhv
[hyHt xl]
Dependence one way or
the other is not possible to determine. It is apparent
that these two sayings
are parallel, due to the injunctions of "spare not" and
"if I beat you,
you will not die," though the Biblical text is addressed to the
father rather than the
son. There is also a similar use of the root lcn.
Parental discipline is
a common theme in ANE wisdom texts, and the lack
of evidence to show
obvious signs of dependence one way or the other leaves
us with the conclusion
that there was a common tradition lying behind
both.65
To summarize, it is evident that the book of Proverbs,
while placing a
great deal of
importance on the instruction, training and discipline of
children, does not lack
admonitions to parents on the importance of the
care and protection of
their children. Any study which fails to incorporate
these ideas and
relegates children to the status of property falls short of a
balanced treatment of
the subject.
We must also mention the oft-claimed statement that
Proverbs is a
book directed at young
people. In noticing the number of proverbs aimed at
65 See James M. Lindenberger,
The Aramaic Proverbs of Ahiqar
(Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 49-52, esp. 50. Cf. also
Murphy, Tree of Life, 159.
153
parents we must also
acknowledge the broader range of age groups in-
cluded in the audience.
The book itself does not set limits on the readership
(or listeners) to
exclude those who may no longer be considered "young."
Proverbs addressing an
older, more mature audience may not be great in
number but they are in
evidence.
II.
Analysis of Individual Proverbs
In this part of the study attention will be focused on the
various
individual proverbs
which refer to parental suffering. There are two broad
categories: (1) the
damage caused by fools and (2) the pain due to mocking,
scorning, shame,
cursing, etc.
A. Parents of Fools
Every proverb which refers to the fool causing
pain to parents
has been
form-critically classified as a "saying." There are no admonitions,
comparisons, numerical
sayings or other forms. In terms of their
appearance in the
various collections all of these sayings are located in
Solomon B: 10:1; 15:5,
20; 17:21, 25; 19:13.
In this category there are three Hebrew words behind the
translation
"fool:" lysiK;, lbAnA
and lyvix<. The first of
the three occurs in five of the
sayings, with lbAnA used as a synonym in 17:21, thus these
terms are seen to
have some degree of
overlap. Briefly, the lysiK;,
based on the derivation of its
root form, seems to
mean "one who is dull, obstinate."66 The word occurs
66 Derek Kidner, The Proverbs: An Introduction and Commentary,
TOTC (Downers Grove:
InterVarsity, 1964), 40. See also J. Schupphaus,
154
only in the wisdom
literature--49 times in Proverbs, 18 times in Qoheleth
and 3 times in Psalms.67
This makes lysiK;
a very important term in the
wisdom corpus,
occurring frequently in contrast to the wise person. The
word does not refer to
mental deficiency but to a chosen outlook.68
The second term, lbAnA
occurs only three times in Proverbs (17:7, 21;
30:22; the verb occurs
in 30:32). The main characteristics of this type of
person are an evil
character, immoral, closed-minded, insensible and
impious.69
The final term, lyvix<
is found more frequently than lbAnA
in Proverbs
(19 times) but not as
often as lysiK;,
unless one includes the occurrences of
tl,U,xi
"foolishness" (22 times). It is of uncertain etymology, but
frequently
stands in contrast to MkAHA, rwAyA
or
lk,s,.70
There is a tendency in Solomon B
and Solomon C to
connect this word with unfruitful speech, although its
occurrence in
connection with parental suffering (15:5) is not one of
them.71
Poetically, three of the six proverbs which address
parental suffering
"lsk ksl," TWAT, vol. 4 (1984), 278: "Die Belege von ksl legen trotz
semasiologischer
Unterschiede die Annahme einer Wurzel
mit der
Grundbedeutung
‘dick, fett, schwerfallig’ nahe, von der auch die at.lichen
abgeleitet
werden konnen."
67 See Schupphaus, "lsk ksl," 280 for a more detailed
breakdown.
68 Kidner, Proverbs, 40.
69 See J. Marbock, "lbAnA nabal," TWAT, vol. 5 (1986), 173-185. Both
lbAnA and its feminine form are more
common in prophetic literature. HAL,
vol.
3 (1983), 626-627 defines it as "trad. toricht (intellektuell u.
moralisch)"
and
"(sozial) wertlos, gottlos."
70 H. Cazelles, "lyvix< 'evil," TWAT, vol. 1 (1973), 148.
71 lyvix< in Prov 10:8,
14, 21; 12:16; 14:3, 9; 17:28; 20:3; 24:7; 29:9; tl,U,xi
in
12:23; 13:16; 15:2, 14; 24:9; see Cazelles, "lyvix< 'evil," 149.
155
(10:1; 15:5; 15:20) are
antithetical, two others are synonymous (17:21, 25) and
the last is synthetic
(19:13). A more detailed discussion of their individual
structure will be found
when each is addressed.
1. 10:1(lysiK;)
This proverb occupies the first place
in Solomon B, a key
place in the
collection. It is probably no coincidence that it contains a
heading similar to that
of 1:1, though it is lacking in both the Greek and
Syriac versions, but
without serious consequences.72
The comment on the wise son serves to show that the basic
audience
is similar to that of
Solomon A even though the literary format is different.
This assumes, of
course, that references to parents in Solomon A are not
metaphorical references
to wisdom teachers.73 However, there is no
definitive way to
exclude either the possibility of parental instruction or that
of the wisdom teachers,
as indicated by Arndt Meinhold:
Wahrscheinlich steht dieser Spruch
nicht zufallig am Anfang de
Hauptsammlung B. Die Eltern, von denen
in 1-9 mehrmals die Rede
ist, haben den ersten und
grundsatzlichen Teil der Erziehung ihres
Sohnes geliestet (vgl. 1,8; 4,3f.;
6,20f.). Danach trat der Weisheits-
lehrer an die Stelle der Eltern. Der
Text gibt nicht genau zu
erkennen, welcher Zeitpunkt hier in Auge gefalsst ist.74
72 According to O. Ploger, Spruche Salomos, BKAT 17 (Neukirchen-
Vluyn:
Neukirchener Verlag, 1984), 121.
73 For this view see
Whybray, Proverbs, 149, who says the
instruc-
tions
of chapters 1-9 originated in a primarily educational setting, seeming
to
imply a formal setting rather than the home.
74 Arndt Meinhold, Die Spruche, 2 Teile (
Verlag, 1991), 1.165.
156
The antithetical
parallelism of this saying is matched exactly. For every
element in the first
line, the second has a corresponding term of contrast.
This functions to place
at the outset of the collection the main message to
children, the value of
wisdom and the damage caused by foolishness. This
is simply a further
outworking of the basic polarity of the book as a whole as
reflected in the theme
in 1:7.
Some scholars place this saying at the head of a smaller
collection
which runs through
10:5.75 If this is the case then the contrasts of "wise
son/foolish son"
(10:1) and "wise son/disgraceful son" (10:5) form an
inclusio for a unit
which contains elements of agricultural life, showing
the social setting of
the unit.76 The structure of the poem would be:
A 10:1 :Om.xi tgaUT lysiK; NbeU
bxA-Hma.Way;
B 10:2 :bv,mA.mi lyci.Ta hqAdAc;U fwar, tOrc;Ox UlyfiOy-xlo
C 10:3
:JDoh;y, MyfiwAr; tUahav; qyDica wp,n,
hvAhy; byfir;y-xlo
B 10:4 :rywifETa
MyciUrHA dyav; hyA.mir;-Jka hW,fo wxrA
A' 10:5 :wybime
NBe ryciqABa MDAr;ni lyKiW;ma nBe CyqaBa rgexo
All of these sayings
can be classified as antithetic parallelism, even though
10:5 lacks the
characteristic v;.
In the A elements of this poem there is a parallel between MkAHA NBe
(10:la) and LyKiW;ma NBe (10:5a). There is also parallelism
between lysiK; NBe
75 Garrett, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 117; Meinhold, Die Spruche, 1.165.
76 Whybray, Proverbs,
157.
157
(10:lb) and wybime NBe (10:5b).
The B elements parallel the idea of rwar, tOrc;Ox (10:2a) with wxrA
(10:4a), as well as hqAdAc; (10:2b) and MyciUrHA dya (10:4b). There is also
chiasmus present in the
structure of 10:4, contrasting diligent hands with
lazy hands.
Since it stands in the middle of the poem, the C element
(10:3) is the
centerpiece. It makes a
chiastic contrast between the righteous
linking it to 10:2) and
the wicked (MyfiwAr;),
one of the dominant polarities in
the book of Proverbs.
There is also the association of "going hungry" and
"craving" in
10:3, which are possible results of laziness and sleeping in
harvest in the
following sayings. It is also an important element of the
poem because it
contains a reference to the divine name. This places the
entire series of
sayings in a Yahwistic context and provides a theological
setting for each of the
sayings individually and as part of a poem.
Many of the elements found in 1:8-19, the first extended
instruction in
Solomon A, are also
found here in the first smaller collection in Solomon B.
Briefly, to list two,
there is the value of work (10:4-5; implied in 1:8-19), and
the comment on the
questionable value of ill-gotten gain (10:2; 1:19).
Another important part of this small poem is the occurrence
of the
shameful son (wybime NBe) in 10:5. Although it is found as
a comparison to the
foolish son and may be
best understood as part of that comparison, I will
discuss the aspects of
shame in the section below which specifically
addresses that issue.
158
2.
15:5 (lyvix< )
The decision to include this proverb in
the present dis-
cussion on parental
suffering rested on two factors. First was its location
in context where it
seemed to be parallel to 15:20, which definitely has
reference to this
subject, and second, the meaning of the root Cxn,
which is
at the heart of the
action in this saying:
:Mrif;ya
tHakaOT rmewov; vybixA rsaUm Cxan;yi lyvix<
Regarding the first
conclusion, Garrett77 contends that 15:1-16:8 comprise
two parallel
collections, each of which begins with a word on patience ver-
sus the provocation of
wrath (15:1, 18) and ends with bOF-sayings
on
apparent versus real
prosperity (15:16-17; 16:8). These two collections
contain a great deal of
correspondence in content but not so much in
structure.78
McKane,79 Whybray,80 Meinhold,81 and Hubbard82
all tie
these two sayings
together in their respective discussions as having similar
points, but do not
argue for the larger parallel collections.
The second reason for including this proverb is the meaning
and
uses of the root Cxn. When the semantic range of the root
meaning behind
77 Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 149-150.
78 See Garrett's chart in Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 150, and 151,
where
he
comments on 15:5 and 15:20-22: "These two texts both draw together two
concepts,
namely, the wise/foolish son who pleases/disgraces his parents
and
the importance of heeding wise counsel."
79 Proverbs, 479.
80 Proverbs, 226.
81 Die Spruche, 1.250.
82 D. A. Hubbard, Proverbs (Dallas: Word, 1989), 256-257.
159
this word is examined
it makes a strong statement. It refers to the action
or attitude whereby the
former recipient of favorable disposition and/or
service is consciously
viewed and/or treated with disdain.83 As parallel
terms it has sxm "to reject" (Jer 33:24); hrm "to rebel" (Ps 107:11); hbx "to be
disinclined toward
obedience" (Prov 1:30); xnW
"to hate" (Prov 5:12); etc. Due
to the strong negative
implications of this word it is apparent that this is a
very serious matter
since to reject or spurn a father's discipline is to reject
the father himself.
Discipline (rsAUm)
and correction (tHakaOT)
are paralleled in this saying
as is also true of
3:11; 5:12; 6:23; 10:17; 12:1; 13:18. The point of the proverb is
very similar to many of
those in Solomon A where parental instruction is
strongly emphasized.
The fool is identified as one who rejects parental
discipline, in keeping
with other proverbs along this same line. Ultimately
the child who behaved
this way was in danger of the punishment
prescribed in Deut
21:18-21.
3. 15:20 (lysiK;)
This saying is not far removed in its
intent from 10:1 (see
above) or 17:21 (see
below):
:Om.xi hz,OB
MdAxA lysik;U bxA-HmaWay; MkAHA NBe
Here the opposite of
the fool in 15:5, the wise son (MkAHA
NBe)
brings joy to the
83 L. J. Coppes, “CxanA“ (na'as), TWOT, 2.543. BDB (611) has it as
contempt, spurn."
160
father rather than
despising the discipline offered. The prudent one (Mrif;ya)
in 15:5 receives or
accepts correction (tHakaOT),
which can be contrasted to
the "fool of a
man"84 (MdAxA lysiK;)
who despises (hz,
here as a word similar
in meaning to Cxn,
and an antonym of xry
"to
respect" (13:13); NnH "to be kind" (14:21); among
others.85 The term is often
applied to Yahweh or
his word:
13:13 He
who scorns (hzb) instruction will pay for it,
But he who respects (xry) a command will be rewarded.
14:2 He
whose walk is upright fears (xry) the LORD,
But he whose ways are devious despises (hzb) him.
This root can also be
found in a statement made by Yahweh regarding the
way people treat him
and the actions of Yahweh in return:
1
Sam 2:30 Those who honor (dbk) me I will
honor (dbk),
But those who despise (hzb) me will be disdained (llq).
Lying behind the proverb in 15:20 is the commandment to
honor
parents (Exod
20:12//Deut 5:16; cf. Lev 19:2) and the correlating proverbs
which either encourage
proper treatment of parents or condemn parental
84 For the genitive use of
the noun, see Bruce K. Waltke and Michael
O'Connor,
An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax
(
Eisenbrauns,
1990), 153.
85 M. Gorg, "hzABA; bazah," TWAT, vol. 1 (1973), 582, who says the root
means
something more than a mental intention. It seems clear there is a
social
aspect to this term when the uses of it, especially in Proverbs, are
examined.
161
abuse. The citations
above regarding the use of hzb
in relation to Yahweh
show the contrast in
terminology where both dbk
and xry are used. This
also true of the
respect due to parents, as was seen in Exod 20:12//Deut 5:1
Lev 19:2, where these
same roots are used. Thus we see that the OT por-
trays the authority of
Yahweh and parents to be deserving of the highest
respect, quite often
using the same terms.
A child who refuses to give proper honor or respect to
parents cause
the parents to suffer
emotionally, and proverbs which refer to this will be
the focus of a
following chapter.
4. 17:21(lysiK;,
lbAnA); 17:25 (lysiK;)
There is no agreement over the
structure, if any,
chapter seventeen. The
most intricate and complex analysis is that of
Garrett, who sees the
chapter as a series of loosely connected collections.
Whybray tends to
downplay the structural aspect of the chapter, seeing on
16:33-17:3 and 17:21-25
as definable sections.87 Ploger, similar to Whybray
refers to the lack of
order in chapter 17 as compared to the previous chapter
and has no mention of
sections within the chapter.88 Meinhold, on the
other hand, divides the
chapter into four sections: vv. 1-6, vv. 7-15, vv. 16-20
86 Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 158-160, where he groups vv. 2-8 as a series
of
random proverbs (17:1 is related to 16:19, 32), then the remainder of the
chapter
is composed of "four conjoined collections" (159) based on thematic
parallels
or catchwords (160): vv. 9-13, vv. 14-19, vv. 20-22, vv. 23-26. He adds
vv.
27-28 to 18:14 (163)..
87 Proverbs, 252-253, 260-261. He is certainly aware of verbal connect-
tions
but apparently does not see this as an indication of editorial work in
quite
the same way as Garrett.
88 Spruche Salomos, 200: "Im Vergleich zu Kap. 16 ist in Kap. 1
inhaltlich
eine Ordnungslosigkeit der Aussagen besonders auffallend..."
162
vv. 21-28, with many
catchwords and associations. The main theme of the
chapter is found in vv.
21-25, having to do with unsuccessful education.89
My approach will be to
focus specifically on vv. 21 and 25:
:lbAnA ybixE
HmaW;yi-xlo Ol hgAUtl; lysiK; dleyo v. 21
:OTd;laOyl; rm,m,U lysiK; NBe vybixAl; sfaKa
v. 25
A notable feature of 17:21 is the almost exact parallel
usage of its
words. This is true of
the words translated in English as "fool," lysiK; and
lbAnA
in the two cola of 17:21. Then dleyo
in the first colon is paralleled with the
same as the construct ybixE in the second colon; and hgAUt in line one equates
with the negative HmaW;yi-xlo in line two. The poetic structure
is in the classic
ABB'A' pattern:
A lysk dly
B Ol hgUtl
B' HmWy-xl
A' lbn ybx
The emotive terms hgAUt and HmaW;yi-xlo
form the B elements of the proverb. Surrounding the core elements are terms
identifying parents of fools in the
89 Die Spruche, 2.281: "Der Aufbau des Kapitale erschliesst sich
am
besten
vom seinem Ende her, denn in den inhaltlich gleichen Versen 21
and
25 tritt das Problem einer misslungenen Erziehung mit ihren
schmerzlichen
Folgen fur die Eltern deutlich hervor." For further dis-
cussion
of his view of the word associations and poetic structure see 293.
163
A elements, lysiK; dleyo and lbAnA
ybixE. This proverb essentially says the same
thing in both lines,
once stated by a positive assertion, then a contrasting
statement is made by
means of a negation in the second line.
Similarly, 17:25 emphasizes the damage the fool's actions
bring upon
his parents. The
addition of the mother in 17:25 serves to highlight the
seriousness of the
actions. This proverb is structured as a chiastic tricolon
in the
A vybxl sfk
B lysk Nb
A' vtdlOy rmmv
The outer elements are
parallel in these types of structures, which consist
of two parallel
thoughts separated by an isolated one.90 The pronominal
suffixes in the outer
elements both make reference back to the inner
element which is
sandwiched between.
Practically speaking, these two proverbs admit the
possibility that no
amount of parental
guidance can guarantee that a child will choose to go
the correct way in
life. There are no condemnations of the parents here,
just the bare
observations on the misery a wayward child can bring to
parents.
90 For other examples of
this type of parallelism see Is 30:31; Am 1:3;
Nah
3:17; Ps 86:12; etc. For discussion of this see Wilfred G. E. Watson,
Classical Hebrew
Poetry: A Guide to its Techniques, JSOTSS 26, 2nd ed.
(Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1995), 181-182, 204.
164
5.
19:13 (lysiK;)
In terms of the current study only the
first colon of this
saying is applicable.
The second colon is provided for the sake of reference
and completion:
:hwA.xi yney;d;mi
dreFo Jl,d,v; lysiK; NBe vybixAl; tUoha
Here it is stated that
a lysiK; NBe
is his father's ruin, tUoha.
Each line of the
proverb has
similarities elsewhere. For the first colon see 10:lb; 17:21a,
25a; for the second,
see 21:9b, 19b; 25:24.91
The word tUoha
"ruin" is rendered Ungluck,
"tragedy" or "destruc-
tion" by both
Meinhold92 and Ploger.93 This seems like a stronger term
than the English word,
and the stronger force of Ungluck is
more appro-
priate when the Hebrew
word is examined.
The root hvh
occurs sixteen times in the OT, ten of which are plural
as is the case in
19:13. It is generally associated with those who are
unfaithful and rebellious
against God, cf. Mic 7:3, where the wp,n,
tUaha,
the
"inner
desire," leads to evil and perverted action; Prov 10:3, where it
parallels MyfiwAr;, "wicked ones" and 11:6
where it is associated with the
Mydig;Bo,
"treacherous ones." It can refer to the inner root of evil, or as is
more often the case
when the plural is in view, the fruits of evil desire, cf.
91 Whybray, Proverbs, 280. For a longer discussion
of the second
colon
see Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
170.
92 Die Spruche, 2.315.
93 Spruche
Salomos, 217.
165
Prov 17:4; Ps 5:10[9];
55:12 [11]; etc.94
"Ruin" or "destruction" are good
renderings of the word here but
there seems to be an
element of self-seeking or self-satisfaction (selbstzu-
frieden)
on the part of the son which causes this, possibly a further result
of ignoring parental
instruction.95 The son's pursuit of selfish ends rather
than participating in
harvest (cf. 10:5) or other duties would cause a great
deal more than just
disappointment or consternation on the part of the
father. It could go
beyond a mere failure to live up to expectations. It might
destroy the family's
reputation as dependable supporters of the community.
Or worse, if several
young people placed their own interests above that of
the family and
community, the lack of effort could lead to a failure to
harvest the crop in
sufficient amount to feed the family in the coming weeks
and months. This might
cause the family to face a harsh and hungry
winter.
To summarize this section, we have seen that the fool,
regardless of
the Hebrew term used,
can cause emotional pain for parents by his actions,
by rejecting them or by
treating them with contempt or disrespect. Most of
the sayings in this
category are not specific. They do not describe a
particular action which
leads to a painful reaction on the part of the
parents, but rather
describe the emotional reaction of the parents to the
actions or attitudes of
the child. The possible exceptions to this are 15:5
where spurning or
rejecting parental discipline is mentioned, and 15:20
which describes
despising a mother, thereby causing them to suffer for no
94 S. Erlandsson, "hUAha havvah," TDOT, vol. 3 (1978), 357.
95 Meinhold, Die
Spruche, 2.318.
166
other reason than the
poor choices of the child. It should be noted that these
sayings reflect
situations where the child has made the choice to carry out
certain actions or hold
certain attitudes which go against the training given
by the parents, thus
showing them innocent of any wrongdoing.
B. Parents and Public Shame, Mocking,
Disgrace, etc.
Under this heading the issue to be addressed is
the poor treat-
ment of parents by
their children under rubrics such as shame, mocking,
scorning and cursing,
and then the occurrence of the only instance of
actual physical abuse,
robbing.
1. Shame (wybime)
and Disgrace (MlaKA)
There are four proverbs in this
section, all sayings: 10:5;
19:26; 28:7; 29:15. All
but 19:26 are stated antithetically, though 10:5 lacks
the characteristic
adversive v;
joining the two halves of the saying. But there
is little doubt of it
being antithetic, due to the contrastive vocabulary.
All four sayings can be
classified as hmolow; ylew;mi,
two in Solomon B
(10:5; 19:26) and two
in Solomon C (28:7; 29:15).
Before these proverbs are examined a brief discussion of
shame is
necessary. Shame and
its opposite, honor, are the main core values of the
Mediterranean world in
general and the world of the Bible as well.96
Honor might be
described as publicly acknowledged worth. Its opposite,
shame, is when publicly
acknowledged worth is denied or repudiated.
Shame functioned as a
social control. It was related to the "anxiety aroused
96 Joseph Plevnik,
"Honor/Shame," in Biblical
Social Values and
Their Meaning: A
Handbook,
ed. J. Pilch and B. Malina (
drickson,
1992), 95-96.
167
by ‘inadequacy’ or ‘failure’
to live up to internalized, societal and parental
goals and ideals."97
Expectations and goals placed upon a person by
society and by parents
dictated what a person "should" be able to do, be,
know or feel. It also
gave the individual a window for viewing society, since
these expectations
showed how others were required to behave as well.
Shame relates to a
failure or inadequacy to reach these goals or live up to
socio-parental
expectations.98 On the other hand, a healthy self-view is
based on the attainment
of these goals and ideals.
Though they are not identical, shame and guilt arise from
both
external and internal
pressure. Shame arises predominantly from exter-
nal or group pressure,
and is reinforced by the internal pressure of fear of
being shamed. Guilt
relies mainly on internal pressure from the con-
science and is
reinforced by external pressure from society.99
Shame functions most effectively as an agent of social
control in
group-oriented
societies. Public opinion and outward appearance play key
roles in this type of
society because group rejection means being cut off from
the major source of
identity.100
97 Lyn M. Bechtel,
"Shame as a Sanction of Social Control in Biblical
sis
in original).
98 Bechtel,
"Shame," 49.
99 Bechtel,
"Shame," 51. In older studies cited by Bechtel (51, n. 3),
shame
and guilt were categorically classified as exclusively external and
internal
respectively.
100 Bechtel, "Shame,"
52. In contrast, guilt works more effectively in
individual-oriented
societies since it relies heavily on the internal pressure
of
the conscience.
168
As
a sanction shame functioned primarily:
(1) as a means of social control which
attempted to repress aggressive
or undesirable behavior;
(2) as an important means of
dominating others and manipulating
social status;
(3) as a pressure that preserved
social cohesion in the community
through rejection and the creation of
social distance between deviant
members and the group.101
Ancient Israelite society was primarily group-oriented.
This means
that shame was of more
use than guilt as a social control. Society relied
more on public opinion,
outward appearances and group pressure to
enforce its norms.
Violations led to threats of rejection or abandonment.
Since status within the
group was of such high value, "honor," a value
ascribed by the group
to an individual, raised the status of that person in
the community, whereas
"shame," also a value judgment, lowered an
individual's status.
a. 10:5 (wybime
NB,)
The placement of this saying in the
first small
poem in Solomon B has
already been noted above. The agrarian culture
provides the background
for this saying, and the enormity of the problem
stated in line two
should not underestimated. For people living in an
agricultural society
harvest was the most intensive operation of the
agricultural year,
often going beyond the work force available to the bxA-tyBe
101 Lyn M. Bechtel,
"The Perception of Shame within the Divine
Human
Relationship," in Uncovering Ancient
Stones: Essays in Memory of
H.
Neil Richardson, ed. L. M. Hopfe (Winona Lake:
Eiser.Lbrauns, 1994), 81.
169
to include the entire
village.102
There were two main types of foods harvested in the summer:
fruits
and grains).103
The grain harvest was primarily that of
wheat, the main
food crop, and occurred
in Sivan (May/June). Barley, the
other main food
crop, was harvested
earlier in Nisan (March/April).
Grapes, figs and
olives were harvested
in Ab (July/August) and were valued
for their use as
food in the form of
raisins, dried figs and, of course, the production of wine,
which took place at the
end of Elul (August/September).104
The son who participates in the summer harvest is referred
to as a
lyKiW;ma
NBe.
The hot temperatures in that part of the world in summer
would have made this
extremely difficult and unpleasant work. Prov 25:13
comments on the
desirability of cooler weather for the exertions required for
this work. The son who
sleeps during harvest is castigated as a wybime
NBe.
The shame in this
proverb is due to failure to live up to the expectations of
the community during
the most critical time of the agricultural year. This
would cause not only
the son to lose status but also his parents, since he
would be known as the
son of his father, thus associating the father with
the humiliation of the
son. The entire bxA-tyBe
would have shared in the
shame. All would know
that when others were working to harvest the
crops during the hot
weather this person was too lazy to help. This would
show that he could not
be counted on to help in other important activities
102 Frank S. Frick,
"Ecology, Agriculture and Patterns of Settlement,"
in
The World of Ancient
bridge
University Press, 1989), 87.
103 Oded Borowski,
"Harvests, Harvesting," ABD,
3.64.
104 J. A. Patch and L. Hunt,
"Harvest," ISBE, vol. 2
(1982), 619.
170
such as community
defense.
b. 19:26 (wybime
NB,//ryPiH;ma)
There is very little apparent structure
in chapter
nineteen. Whybray has
identified several proverb-pairs105 but Meinhold
and Garrett see larger
structures in this chapter. Meinhold's suggested
structure for the
latter part of this chapter is the more extensive, and in my
view, the least likely.106
Garrett's is only slightly smaller but has better
associations, with
19:25-20:1 seen as a unit. In his structure an inclusio is
formed with 19:25 and
19:29 on the beatings received by mockers and 20:1 is
an afterword using
mocker as a catchword.107
My own suggestion for the structure of this poem is to
limit it to the
proverbs between v. 25
and v. 29:
A 19:25 :tfaDA
NybiyA NObnAl; HaykiOhv; Mrif;ya ytip,U hK,Ta Cle
B 19:26 :ryPiH;maU
wybime NBe Mxe Hayrib;ya bxA-dD,wam;
C 19:27
tfadA-yrem;xime tOGw;li rsAUm famow;li
yniB;-ldaHE
B' 19:28 :Nv,xA-fl.abay;
MyfiwAr; ypiU FPAw;mi CyliyA lfaya.liB; dfe
A' 19:29 MyliysiK; vgel;
tOmluhEmaU MyFipAw; Mycile.la UnOknA
In this format there is
an inclusio in the A elements formed
by the
root Cyl in v. 25 and v. 29, and a parallel
occurrence of the verb in v. 28.
105 Vv. 2-3, 6-7, 11-12,
13-14, 20-21, see his Proverbs, 275.
106 He sees 19:24-20:1 as a
unit which he entitles Uberwiegend
negative
Beispiele (2.324).
107 Garrett, Proverbs.
Ecclesiastes, 172-173.
171
There is also a
contrast seen in the inclusio between
the NObnA and the Cle in
v. 25 and the Mycile and MyliysiK;
in v. 29.
The central element of this unit is 19:27 which uses the
instructional
address yniB;. This is one of its rare occurrences
outside of Solomon A and
the only one in Solomon
B. Though Whybray rightly points out this address
is usually found at the
head of an instruction,108 it functions here as the
foundation of the poem,
in my view. This proverb also has the unique
feature of sarcasm
associated with an instructional address, found
nowhere else in the
book. Here the son is "commanded" to stop listening.
The sarcastic command
makes the disastrous consequences for such action
stand out all the more.
There is no need to emend the text because of the
unique use of sarcasm
in Proverbs. In my opinion the MT should be
retained.109
There is also a link between v. 25 and v. 27 with the word
In v.
25 the intended
parallelism is strike/reprove; scoffer/man of discernment;
learn prudence/gain
knowledge. Perfect parallelism does not exist in this
proverb. If it did we
would expect the first line to end with a statement such
as "...but he will
not profit by it" or the like.110 This proverb teaches that the
Cle
does not learn even if he suffers a physical punishment, for misdeeds or
misconduct, but the NObnA needs only a spoken reproof for
correcting
inappropriate behavior.
The second half of the A element, v. 29, has a
108 Proverbs, 285.
109 See Ploger, Spruche Salomos, 219, 227; Meinhold, Die Spruche,
2.324,
n. 80; 2.326-327.
110 Suggested by Whybray, Proverbs, 285.
172
further comment on the
fate of mockers and fools. Judgments (MyFipAw;111)
are prepared for
mockers, and floggings or beatings for the backs of fools.
Whybray makes the
interesting observation that MyFipAw;
occurs mainly in
Exodus and Ezekiel,
most often with reference to divine judgment. In this
proverb, if other usage
can influence the understanding of the word here, it
is God who punishes
mockers, whereas fools suffer from human punish-
ment.112
This adds an element of divine judgment and punishment to the
poem, showing that the
retribution exacted here may come from human
agents or from Yahweh.
The B elements of this unit contain the proverb (v. 26)
that led to its
inclusion in this
study. There is some degree of parallelism between v. 28
and v. 29, with the
uses of the roots Fpw
and Cyl. The B elements highlight
the actions of those
who defy two of ancient society's foremost authorities,
parents and courts. The
commands to honor and respect parents are well
known. The abuse shown
to them here by a son who leaves them destitute
and homeless is
described as shameful and disgraceful. The root trans-
lated disgraceful (rpH) is sometimes accompanied by language
describing
a body position which
indicates lowered status such as blushing113 or
covering the mouth (Mic
3:7), and cf. Ps 34:5[6] where the psalmist says
UrPAH;y,-lxa
Mh,nep;U,
"and their faces are not ashamed."114
There has been some discussion on the verbs in 19:26 1'SiM)
111 LXX translates this
word ma<stigej,
"whips." Apparently the
translator
read MyFbw,
"rods, sticks" (cf. 26:3), see Whybray, Proverbs, 287;
Ploger,
Spruche Salomos, 219.
112 Whybray, Proverbs, 287.
113 Bechtel, "Social
Control," 54.
114 Note also the contrast of those who look to
Yahweh being radiant.
173
in the past, especially
in regards to suggested Ethiopic or Arabic cognates
leading to emendations
for the sake of a more exact parallelism.115
However, there is no
compelling reason why these verbs must be synony-
mous. They may be
expressing two different aspects of disgraceful
behavior.116
The words translated shame and disgrace are probably
intended as hendiadys,
meaning an "absolutely disgraceful" son.117
The issue of authority is an important one in 19:25-29.
Parents,
courts and ultimately
God are all part of the "chain of command." The
mocker, the fool, the
wicked, and the son who displays shameful behavior
are shown to be those
who act in defiance of recognized authority. The
mistreatment of parents
is the ultimate act of rebellion because it is a
rejection of the most
basic form of authority in ancient Israelite society.
c. 29:15 (wybime)
This proverb occurs in a small unit
which is com-
prised of 29:15-18:
A 29:15 :Om.xi wybime HlA.wum; rfanav; hmAk;HA NTeyi tHakaOtv; Fb,we
B 29:16 :Uxr;yi MTAlPamaB; MyqiyDicav; fwaPA-hB,r;yi MyfiwAr; tObr;Bi
A' 29:17 :j~w,p;na
Myni.dafEma NTeyiv; j~H,yniyvi j~n;Bi rs.eya
B' 29:18 :Uhrew;xa hrAOT rmewov; MfA fraPAyi NOzHA NyxeB;
The first two parallel
lines deal with discipline (note the use of the
115 E. g., D. Winton Thomas,
"Textual and Philological Notes on Some
Passages
in the Book of Proverbs," in Wisdom
in
Driver,
"Proverbs xix.26," ThZ 11
(1955): 373-374.
116 See the discussion of
McKane, Proverbs, 532.
117 Garrett, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 173.
174
roots Hky, rsy)
in the home, the second pair with society at large. Again in
29:15 the main issue in
parental suffering is discipline, or in this case, the
lack of it. This is one
of the rare proverbs addressed to parents. According
to the sages corporal
punishment was an essential part of a child's
education.118
The construction in v. 15 tells us that it is the rod and
discipline that bring
wisdom to a child, one positive and the other negative.
One punishes
unacceptable behavior, designated as shameful or disgrace-
ful (wybime), while the other teaches proper
behavior. The parallel proverb (v.
17) gives another view
of the same theme, that of the rest or delight a well-
disciplined child will
bring to a parent.
In vv. 16 and 18 the lack of discipline in society at large
is seen in the
thriving of the wicked
and a society that has cast off all restraint (see NIV).
There is the unusual
statement in v. 18 regarding the lack of NOzHA.119
This
word is usually
associated with the prophetic ministry (1 Sam 3:1; Dan 8:13;
Nah 1:1; Ezek 12:27;
etc.). In this proverb those who no longer possess the
vision of the prophetic
oracle are more or less equated with those who fail to
keep Torah. Thus the
proverb asserts the value of the law and the
prophets. The highest
standards of authority in this unit are parents and
the Torah. Chaos occurs
in the home and in society when these proper
authorities are no
longer recognized.
118 See Whybray, Proverbs, 402; cf. Prov 13:24; 22:15;
23:13-14.
119 LXX translates this
word e]chghth<j,
"guide." Apparently the
translator
read NzAHA
or Nz.AHa,
as in Mishnaic Hebrew, "superintendent,"
according
to McKane, Proverbs, 641. Whybray (Proverbs, 403) suggests
"political
leader" or "magistrate."
175
d.
28:7 (MlaKA)
Following an unusually long poem in
27:23-27
which was evidently
part of a separate collection, the predominant struc-
ture returns to
two-line sayings, most of which are antithetical. In Prov 28
there are only two
sayings which specifically refer to Yahweh; however, the
operation of divine
norms seems to be implied throughout.120 The struc-
tural complexities and
verbal connections surrounding 28:7 are extensive,
and for the most part
there is little agreement among the commentators
who address the issue.
The unit this proverb occurs in seems to extend from
28:3-11, accord-
ing to Garrett,121
although Meinhold includes 28:2 in his breakd.own based
on the occurrence of
the word Nybime,
which he translates "verstehen /
Einsicht
haben."122 This word also occurs in 28:7,
and the root occurs
twice in 28:5. Also
important in this section is the word hrAOT
(vv. 4, 7, 9),
which could possibly
refer to parental instruction but is more likely
referring to the Torah
due to its association with piety and its contrast to
fwArA
(v.
4) and hbAfeOT (v. 9). Another
emphasis in this passage is the
contrast between rich
and poor, using a variety of terms to express these
conditions (vv. 3, 6,
8, 11).
My own suggestion for understanding the structure of this
section is
120 Ploger, Spruche Salomos, 332.
121 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 222.
122 Die Spruche, 2.466: "Die Vorkommen des Verbs ‘verstehen/
Einsicht
haben’ fallen durch ihre Haufigkeit auf, so dass sie gewisser-
massen
Leitwortcharakter besitzen. Zwei von ihren kommen im ersten and
letzen
Spruch vor (V. 2.11), so dass sie das Ganze emfassen."
176
to see it divided into
two similar subunits encompassing 28:1-11. The first
subunit is vv. 1-5, the
second vv. 6-11, and can be broken down as follows:
A 28:1 :HFAb;yi
rypik;Ki MyqiyDicav; fwArA Jdero-Nyxev; UsnA
B 28:2 :j`yrixEya
NKe fadeyo Nybime MdAxAb;U hAyr,WA MyBira Cr,x, fwap,B;
C 28:3
:MH,lA Nyxev; JHeso rFAmA Myli.Da
qwefov; wrA rb,G,
B' 28:4 :MBA UrGAt;yi hrAOt yrem;wov; fwArA Ull;hay; hrAOt ybez;fo
A' 28:5 :lko
UnybiyA hvAhy; yweq;bam;U FPAw;mi UnybiyA-xlo frA-ywen;xa
A 28:6 :rywifA
xUhv; MyikarAD; wqe.fime Om.tuB; j`leOh wrA-bOF
B 28:7 :vybixA Mylik;ya Mylil;Oz hf,rov; Nybime NBe hrAOT rceOn
C 28:8 :Un.c,B;qyi
Myl.iDa NneOHl; tyBir;tabv; j`w,n,B; OnOH hB,r;ma
B’ 28:9 :hbAfeOT
Otl.ApiT;-MGa hrAOT famow;.mi Onz;xA rysime
A' 28:10 :bOF-UlHEn;yi
Mymiymit;U lOPyi-xUh OtUHw;Bi frA j`r,d,B; MyriwAy; hG,w;ma
A' 28:11 :Un.r,q;H;ya
Nybime ldav; rywifA wyxi vynAyfeB; MkAHA
The advantage of this structure is that it provides a
theological
foundation for
understanding the saying in 28:7 regarding the abuse of
parents and keeps it
from being treated in isolation.
The A elements contain the ideas which form the limits of
the poem,
that of pursuing, examining
or assessing (v. Jdr;
v. 5 wqb; v. 11 rqH).
There is also the
initial contrast in v. 1 between fwArA
and MyqiyDica, setting
the tone for the
remainder of the unit, climaxed by the assertion of what
they are able or unable
to discern in v. 5, and the concluding evaluation of
wisdom and discernment
having little relation to wealth in. v. 11. The issue
177
of integrity (Mmt) appears in vv. 6, 10 with observations
that both deny and
affirm the so-called
conventional wisdom as seen, for example, in Job's
three friends, viz.
wealth is a sign of piety and righteousness. After he lost
his wealth, Job was a
model of v. 6, a "poor man who walked in his
integrity" yet he
was subjected to the criticisms of his three friends, who
simply could not accept
the possibilty of a righteous person suffering the
calamities which had
come upon Job. Then v. 10 seems to affirm the idea of
conventional wisdom by
asserting that the one who leads the upright down
an evil path will fall.
Verse 10 is also unusual in that it admits that an
upright person can be
led down an evil path. If the teaching of the sages
was as superficial as
some have claimed there would be no admission of
this.
Another contrast that is seen in vv. 6, 10, 11 is that of
the rich and
poor. While Proverbs
does not praise the poor for their financial state
neither are they
condemned for it. The issue in v. 6 has to do with lifestyle
and values. What is
more valuable, wealth or integrity? The lifestyle and
values motif is
prominent in the book of Proverbs, and often expressed in
terms of walking, path
or way. In v. 6 we find the root j`lh
in the first colon
and j`rd in the second. The parallel saying in
v. 10, also part of the A
element in this poem,
has reference to this as well. In v. 10a there is a
statement regarding the
one who leads the upright frA j`r,d,B;,
"on a bad
(dangerous?)
path." Verse 11 is part of the couplet which summarizes and
closes this unit and
also contains a contrasting evaluation of the rich
(rywifA) and poor (lDa) regarding their ability to discern and
assess. The rich
178
one is called
"wise in his own eyes" but the poor, it is claimed, have
discernment and are
able to evaluate.
The emphasis of the B elements is that of the hrAOT. In many places
in Proverbs hrAOT refers to the instruction given by
parents (e. g., 1:8; 3:1;
4:2; 6:20; etc.; 6:23
may be an exception) but here seems to be divine
instruction. Whybray is
hesitant to equate it with "law" in the Deutero-
nomic sense123
but accepting or rejecting this equation will depend on one's
view of the dates of
authorship for the books in question, neither of which is
settled. In v. 7 the
discerning son who keeps hrAOT
is contrasted with the
wastrel or profiligate,
who disgraces his father. In v. 4 to keep hrAOT
is to
stand against the
wicked (fwArA) and in v. 9 it
is only those who obey hrAOT
whose prayers are
acceptable. The three proverbs are grouped around the
Yahweh-proverb in v. 5,
which is part of the middle of this section.124
The C elements of the poem (vv. 3, 8) are related in
content to the
concepts and vocabulary
found in the A elements. The rich and the poor
are again given the central
focus, and the emphasis is on the treatment of
the poor. A suggested
emendation of wrA
to wxro may slightly change
the
emphasis but not the
main subject.125 If this emendation is accepted (cf.
NIV, NRSV) it presents
a parallel between a strong ruler and rich man, a
123 Whybray, Proverbs, 388-389.
124 See the comments of
Meinhold in this regard. He calls vv. 5, 7 "die
Mitte
des Abschnitts" (2.466) but he sees a different structure here than the
one
I am proposing.
125 See Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 223; McKane, Proverbs, 628-
629.
Whybray (Proverbs, 389-390) opposes
the emendation, but leaving MT
as
is results in the unusual expression wrA rb,G,, two words that
are not
linked
elsewhere.
179
theme which will be
repeated in a chiastic structure as part of the con-
clusion in v. 11,
although lDa,
a synonym, is used there rather than
Verse 8 uses the plural
Myli.Da in its
expression of the slippery nature of
wealth, thus making
material gain of dubious value.
The main point to the study of this unit occurs in v. 7,
and to a lesser
degree, v. 10. In v. 7
a son who disgraces his father through his wasteful
lifestyle is contrasted
with a son who obeys the Torah. Issues of author-
ship and editing are
too complex to enter into at this point but it is my belief
that Yahweh's Torah is
in view here, regardless of what one may think of
the role of parental
instruction, for it is ultimately Yahweh's Torah which
forbids the abuse of
parents. And it may be that both parental torah and
Yahweh's Torah are in
view. This possibility should be left open due to the
identical term used for
the teaching of parents' and Yahweh's law.
Parents taught their
children Yahweh's Torah. Deut 6:7 could hardly be
clearer on this point.
If this proverb is understood in a rural agricultural
setting this is
likely a reference to a
son who eats and drinks more than his fair share of
the produce that was
harvested, leaving others to go without. Even in a
more urban setting with
an upper-class family, a son who did this would
cause financial
hardship on other family members, since it is likely that a
son who eats and drinks
too much works too little.
The root Mlk indicates
a sense of disgrace which results from public
humiliation.
180
In the Hebrew
OT, the meaning of klm appears to
stay within the
realm of "disaster" and
"disgrace," both active and passive. The root
conveys the notion of disintegration.
A person to whom klm is
applied is degraded both subjectively
and objectively. That person is
isolated within his previous world,
and his own sense of worth is
impugned. He becomes subject to scorn,
insult, and mockery, and is
cut off from communication. A person
can be actively put in such a
situation, so that the semantic domain
of klm must include "put to
shame." It must be noted that
"shame" and "disgrace" denote the
consequence, conscious or
unconscious...of antisocial conduct on the
part of the person described by klm.126
It occurs as a parallel
to the root wOB
about thirty times127 showing these
two roots have little
distinction. The public humiliation involves having a
son who has turned a
deaf ear to the Torah and is no longer functioning as
a productive member of
the family or the community. Rather than place
the needs of the family
and community in a place of priority as this group-
centered culture would
encourage, this son has expended time and
resources toward
selfish indulgence. But a worse fate has happened to this
son. Not only is the
family shamed as a result of his behavior, but his
prayers are classified
as hbAfeOT,
"abomination," indicating that Yahweh
will no longer listen
to his prayers as a result of the son turning a deaf ear
to the Torah. Thus he
has brought public shame to his family and divine
rejection upon himself.
The role of this poem in family, social and cultic areas
has been set
out, and one final
point needs to be made. We have seen how the religious
126 S. Wagner, "Mlk klm," TDOT, vol. 7 (1995), 186.
127 E. g., Isa 48:16-17; Pss 35:4; 49:14[15];
etc., note HAL, vol. 2 (1974),
457.
181
background of the poem
has emphasized words such as righteous and
wicked (vv. 1, 4), evil
(v. 5) and abomination (v. 9). As is often the case in
Hebrew poetry, the
center of the poem is the main point. It is significant
that 28:1-11 has v. 5
as the closing of the first subunit, but viewed another
way, one could see vv.
5-6 (both A elements in the poetic structure) as a
couplet occupying
center stage in the larger unit. It ties together many of
the themes found in the
poem and bases the entire pursuit of living on a
relationship with
Yahweh, as the motto of the book (1:7) has already done,
thus echoing the
message of the first nine chapters.
2. Cursing (llaqA)
Formal cursing was an important element
of many
ancient societies. This
was true especially in
enemies were written on
clay jars, bowls or figurines, cursed magically
and then smashed with
the belief that the curse held the inherent power of
carrying itself into
effect. This can be seen in the Execration Texts, and
there is hardly a
temple wherein these shards and fragments of broken
pottery and figurines
have not been found.128 Ancient tombs were often
protected by curses
imposed on anyone who might attempt to break in and
pilfer the contents.129
A curse was considered efficacious by ordinary
128 D. B.
curses
on foreign enemies see ANET, 328-329.
129 The earliest of these
are the Pyramid Texts written by or for the
pharaohs;
see R. O. Faulkner, The Ancient Egyptian
Pyramid Texts, 2 vols.
(Oxford:
Clarendon, 1969). Later when eternal life was extended to
commoners
many of the same ideas and themes were found repeated in the
Coffin
Texts; see A. de Buck, The Egyptian
Coffin Texts, 7 vols. (
182
persons, although
sometimes it was associated with a god, who was
thought to hasten it
toward its mark.130
Curses play an important role in covenants, especially in
the vassal
or suzerainty treaties.
These were listed, usually at the end (cf. Lev 26;
Deut 27-30) to warn of
the awful punishments and consequences which
awaited the one who
failed to observe the treaty.
A curse, like its opposite, blessing, was considered more
than a mere
wish. This is another
reason why the sages placed great importance on
guarding the tongue.131
Cursing parents was a capital offense in ancient
Mesopotamia.133
There are other words translated "curse," some of which
occur in Proverbs,134
but to discuss them would digress from the subject.
a. 20:20
This proverb seems to begin a unit
which ends at
21:4, according to
Whybray.135 It is structured around the word rne trans-
lated "lamp"
(20:20, 27; 21:4).136 In this unit there are signs of editorial
130 T. Lewis and R. K.
Harrison, "Curse," ISBE,
vol. 1 (1979), 838.
131 See Prov 26:2; 27:14.
132 Ani 7-8, which speaks
specifically of the mother; see AEL,
vol. 2
(1976),
141.
133 Ahiqar 49. This text
speaks of divine sanction against one who
fails
to honor his parents, using the metaphor of darkness which we will
also
see in Prov 20:20; note Lindenberger, Aramaic
Proverbs, 135.
134 See 3:33, which uses
the root rrx;
and 11:26, where hkArAB; is used
euphemistically,
cf. Job 1:10.
135 Proverbs, 288, 298.
136 MT points it rni in 21:4 but has
a textual note suggesting rne on the
basis
of the other readings, presumably in 20:20, 27. The meaning does not
change
regardless of the pointing.
183
activity in placing
clusters of Yahweh-proverbs in groups of three, 20:22-24;
20:27 (an exception)
and 21:1-3. Royal proverbs also, seem prominent (20:26,
28; 21:1) with one
(21:1) having reference to both Yahweh and the king.
Whybray says the
intention of this structure is to explore three relation-
ships: between Yahweh
and man; between Yahweh and the king; and
between the king and
other men.137
This proverb tells us
:j`w,Ho
NUwyx<B, Orne j`fad;yi Om.xiv; vybixA ll.eqam;
Sufficient attention has already been given to the action
in the
proverb, that of
cursing parents (see above), and the final observation made
here is that the
punishment threatened, in keeping with the penalty
prescribed in the Torah, is death. An expression similar
to Orne j`fad;yi
"his
lamp will be snuffed
out" is also found in 13:9; 24:20. Virtually every
occurrence of the verb j`fd is associated with a light being
extinguished.
Or it may be used
metaphorically for death, see Job 18:5, 6; 21:17; Isa 43:17;
Ps 118:12. The only
exception is Job 6:17.
b. 30:11
The comment in this proverb on cursing
parents
occurs in the Sayings
of Agur at the head of a list of social offenses138 in
137 Proverbs, 298.
138 Wolfgang Roth, Numerical Sayings in the Old Testament,
VTSup
13
(Leiden: Brill, 1965), 38. Roth's supposition that this is a numerical
saying
whose title-line has been lost is hard to accept. He supplies "There
are
three kinds of men whom Yahweh hates and four that are abhorrent to
184
30:11-14, each of which
is condemned elsewhere in Proverbs. The
larger
unit extends from 30:1
to 30:14.139 It has been divided from the rest of the
chapter on
form-critical grounds, since 30:15-33 are verses primarily
composed of numerical
sayings. The textual and translation problems in
this chapter are
daunting,140 especially in the early part of the chapter, and
would require
digression from the main topic.
This small unit runs from 30:11-14:
:j`rebAy; xlo
Om.xi-tx,v; lle.qay; vybixA rOD v. 11
:CHAru xlo OtxAco.miU vynAyfeB; rOhFA rOD v. 12
:UxWenA.yi vyPAfap;fav; vynAyfe UmrA-hmA rOD v. 13
vytAfol;.tam;
tOlkAxEmaU vynA.wi tObrAHE rOD v.
14
:MdAxAme
MyniOyb;x,v; Cr,x,me Myyi.nifE lkox<l,
There is no formal
statement of condemnation in these verses, the words
"There are"
(NIV, RSV) being supplied in the English translations. Each
verse in the section
begins with rOD,
usually rendered "generation," but
here probably referring
to a type of person, or a class of person.141
Beginning a consecutive
series of poetical lines with the same word is a
him"
in his discussion but there are other ways to treat this material, see
the
criticisms of McKane, Proverbs,
650-651.
139 According to Ploger, Spruche Salomos, 356, and Meinhold, Die
Spruche, 2.495, who
observe the order in the LXX, which has 30:1-14; 24:23-
24;
then 30:15-33, although they do not include 24:23-24 in this part of their
discussion.
140 Note Ploger's extended
comments in Spruche Salomos, 353-355.
141 See P. Ackroyd,
"The Meaning of Hebrew rOD
Considered," JSS 13
(1968):
7-8; R. B. Y. Scott, Proverbs.
Ecclesiastes, AB vol. 18 (Garden City:
Doubleday
& Co., 1965), 178, cf. 181.
185
feature found in Hebrew
poetry as well as Ugaritic and Akkadian poetry.142
Cursing parents is
mentioned in the same vein as moral filthiness143
(v. 12), arrogance or
pride (v. 13) and mistreatment of the poor144 (v. 14).
The poetry of v. 11 is
structured so that a negative statement (j`rebAy;
xlo)
follows a positive
statement (ll.eqay;)
in the parallelism regarding the father
and mother. The same
pattern (negative following positive) is also seen in
v. 12, which may set
these off as a couplet, with vynAyfe(B;) serving as a link
between v. 12 and v.
13, and v. 14 contains Myy.inifE
(NIV: "poor"), a word which
has a similar sound and
appearance to vynAyfe(B;), "(in) his eyes."
In the passages which speak of cursing a parent the actions
of a
child who would do this
are associated with the vilest of actions (30:11-14)
and punishable by death
(20:20).
3. Mocking (gfalA)
and Scorning (zUB)
30:17
This proverb is also located in. the
Sayings of Agur, if we
may place all of
chapter 30 under the superscription in 30:1. Though it is
not a numerical saying
it is part of the second section of the chapter, vv. 15-
33, which is dominated
by this form.145 It is difficult to determine why this
142 See Prov 30:4, where
all four cola begin with ymi. For references to
Ugaritic
and Akkadian poetry see Watson, Hebrew
Poetry, 276.
143 Hebrew hxc is used to
refer to vomit (Isa 28:8) and human excre-
ment
(Isa 36:12). The metaphor in this proverb is of disgusting attitudes
and
actions contrasted to rOhFA.
144 BHS apparatus suggests emending MdAxAme to hmAdAxEme in parallel
with
Cr,x,me. M. Dahood, Proverbs
and Northwest Semitic Philology (
Biblical
Institute, 1963), 57-58, says MdAxAme here is a
masculine form of
hmAdAxEme with the same meaning.
145 For discussions of what
actually comprised the Sayings of Agur
see
Whybray, Proverbs, 406; McKane, Proverbs, 643-647. For the view that
186
isolated proverb was
placed here among the numerical sayings. It may be
that rw,n,, "eagle" or
"vulture"146 in v. 17, provided a forward link to v. 19,
while the terms
associated with verbal abuse of parents in this verse look
back to v. 11.147
This verse is unique among the specific passages in this
study in that it is a
quatrain rather than a couplet.148
Mxe-thaqE.yli zUbtAv;
bxAl; gfal;Ti Nyifa
:rw,n,-yneb;
hAUlk;xyov; lHana-yber;fo hAUrq;.yi
In the parallelism of the four lines, the first two lines
are a synon-
ymous couplet, as are
the last two. The two verbs at issue, gfl
and zUB, are
seen as parallel ideas
here as well as in Ps 2:7; 123:3; 2 Kgs 19:21//Isa 37:22;
Neh 2:19; 2 Chr
36:16.149 The main difference between the two verbs in use
here seems to be that gfl tends to be an action whereas zUB is more often an
attitude.
Questions have been raised regarding the reading of thaqE.yli in v. 17b.
The BHS apparatus
suggests emending this to tnaq;zil;,
while the Hebrew
word in the text is
usually translated "obedience" and seen as a unique form
30:1-9
is a unity see P. Franklyn, "The Sayings of Agur in Proverbs 30: Piety
or
Scepticism?" ZAW 95 (1983):
238-252; Scott, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
176.
146 HAL, vol. 3 (1983), 691: "Adler u. Geier."
147 Ploger, Spruche Salomos, 355.
148 30:14 is a quatrain but
it was not the main proverb of the study in
that
passage.
149 C. Barth, "gfalA, la’ag," TWAT, vol. 4 (1984), 584. Among other
parallel
roots are qHw
in Pss 2:4; 59:9; Jer 20:7; Prov 1:26; 2 Chr 30:7; HmW
in
Ps 35:19, 24; Job 22:19; and Mlk in Ps 44:16;
etc. For more on zUB see the
discussion
of 15:20 above.
187
of a similar word found
in Gen 49:10, where it is also rendered "obedi-
ence."150
However, the LXX has gh?raj
mhtro<j here and this reading is
followed by the Syriac
version and the Targum, which both appear to have
accepted qhl as the root rather than hqy.151 The translation of qhl "to be
old" has some
backing.152 Those who hold this view make the l part of the
root rather than the
preposition. It is normal for the preposition to be used
following zUB according to D. Winton Thomas, and it
can also govern the
accusative, as can be
seen in Prov 1:7.153 This would give the translation
"aged mother"
or something similar.154 However, accepting this transla-
tion requires a
transposition of the consonants in this word and I do not
believe there is enough
manuscript evidence to warrant this change.155
The consequences for the one who abuses a parent in this
way are far
worse than it may
appear to the modern reader. Birds (brf
"raven," rwn
"vulture")
which are usually characterized as scavengers or carrion-eaters
will pluck out the eyes
of the one who abuses his parents and feed them to
their young. This would
make "eagle" (NASV, KJV, NKJV) a less likely
150 Meinhold, Die Spruche, 2.508.
151 Note BDB, 429, but cf. HAL, vol. 2 (1974), 429.
152 G. R. Driver,
"Some Hebrew Words," JTS 29
(1928): 394, observes
that
lhq occurs frequently in Ethiopic. J. C. Greenfield, "Lexicographical
Notes
I," HUCA 29 (1958): 212ff.
claims the translation of qhl by gh?raj
in
the
LXX argues for their knowledge of this root to mean "to be white of
hair."
Cf. also HAL, vol. 2 (1974), 429.
153 D. Winton Thomas,
"A Note on thaqE.yli in Proverbs xxx.17," JTS 42
(1941):
154-155.
154 Cf. Scott, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 179; Ploger, Spruche Salomos,
355;
Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 240.
155 Contra Whybray, Proverbs, 415.
188
translation for rw,n, here, since eagles are predators and
rarely scavengers.
The fate of the one who mocks and scorns a parent is thus
graph-
ically described. After
a probable violent death, his remains will be left in
the open, unburied, fit
only for scavengers. This seems to be a violent death
since "to shun
parental discipline is to embark on a life characterized by
lack of discipline and
violence, and such persons are naturally prone to die
a violent death."156
Anyone who died in a more honorable fashion as a
respected member of the
community would have been given a decent burial,
since leaving a dead
body unburied was considered an ultimate indignity in
the ancient world, cf.
Deut 28:25-26; 1 Kgs 14:10-11; Jer 21:22-23; but note 2
Sam 21:10.157
Thus the child who abuses, ridicules, mocks, or despises
his parents
will come to no good
end. But even after his life is gone his humilation is
not over. This strong
warning served to reinforce the commandment in the
Torah to honor parents,
and to graphically illustrate the consequences that
come upon those who
choose to ignore Yahweh's law.
4. Robbery (lzaGA)
28:24
It is difficult to discern any poetical
structure surround-
ing this proverb
although there are many verbal links and associations.
Sayings regarding the
poor (vv. 19, 27) may be seen as the boundaries of this
section, and virtually
every proverb in this unit makes an observation
regarding the general
topic of wealth and poverty.158 Other links in this
156 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 240.
157 J. Barton Payne,
"Burial," ISBE, vol. 1
(1979), 556.
158 Meinhold, Die Spruche, 2.473, says "V.19-27
zielt auf das barm-
herzige
Verhalten gegeniiber dem Armen ab (V. 27f.), nachdem zuvor vor
189
passage are the use of MH,l, in vv. 19, 21; the repetition of bra, vv. 20, 22, 27;
the use of the root rsH in vv. 22, 27; Nyifa and its plural in vv. 22, 27; the root
fwp
in vv. 21, 24; and the word HaFeOB
in vv. 25, 26.
This proverb is stated in very strong terms:
:tyHiw;ma
wyxil; xUh rbeHA fwaPA-Nyxe rmexov; Om.xiv; vybixA lzeOG
The word translated
"he who robs" (NIV), lzeOG,
is used of violent seizure of
possessions in Mic 2:2,
and is also found in Prov 22:22 in a prohibition
against robbing the
poor. In this proverb it is paralleled with tyHiw;ma
wyxi,
"man of
destruction." This evidently indicates the worst kind of
criminal,159
and the use of rbH
(NIV: "partner") here as well as Isa 1:23;
Ps 119:63, means
someone of like character.
The action depicted in this saying may be the ultimate in
antisocial
behavior for the sake
of wealth since there is no institution more honored or
basic to society in the
wisdom literature than parenthood.160 Though there
is no law which
specifically addresses this action the general commands to
honor and respect
parents would certainly exclude this type of behavior. A
similar proverb is
found in 19:26, see above. For all the horror of this
action, it is the
attitude of the offending child that makes this deed so
allem
Erwerbsweisen (V.19-24) und die Grundfrage Gott- oder Selbs-
vertrauen
(V.25f.) zur Sprache kommen. Die Herrschaft der Reichen uber
die
Armen, das Gewinnstreben, aber auch das sonstige Verhalten, sind an
den
Aussagen zum Gottesverhaltnis zu messen."
159 According to Whybray, Proverbs, 396.
160 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 227.
190
terrible, since the
child sees nothing wrong in his actions. No legal
sanction or punishment
is stated here, thus making this proverb operate in
the moral sphere rather
than in a judicial setting.
C. Conclusion
To summarize the discussion on parents and public
shame or
mocking and physical
abuse, we have seen that there are several sayings
which address this
subject, and range from general comments to specific
activities, such as the
refusal to participate in harvest or actually displac-
ing aged parents from
their home or robbing them. An examination of the
literary structure of
the sayings and the attempt to place these proverbs in
their larger literary
context (when appropriate) served to provide a basis for
interpretation which
avoided the atomistic treatment which isolates indi-
vidual proverbs and
disallows an interpretation in context. It also gave a
theological basis for
the interpretation of many of the sayings since
Yahweh-proverbs were
seen occupying an important place in the poetic
structure.
The book of Proverbs seems to be, by and large, optimistic
in tone in
its overall view of the
ability of a person to change surrounding circum-
stances, situations and
society. In effect, individuals can have influence on
the world around them
and there is a pervading order to life which makes
it sensible and worth
living. Sometimes it is overly so since wealth, respect-
ful and well-mannered
children, long life and good reputation often seem to
be virtual guarantees
for those who live according to Yahweh's laws.
However, there are
several proverbs which break out of this mold. The "act-
191
consequence" or
the "character-consequence" relationship is not always
carved in stone. This
study has shown the existence of the knowledge
among the sages and
those responsible for the wisdom movement that
child-rearing was not
formulaic. There would be those children who would
choose to go their own
way, regardless of the best and most sincere parental
guidance and
instruction. The proverbs dealing with the ungrateful child,
the abusive child or
the one who shames a parent do not necessarily cast
blame on the parent,
although there are those which do. Human beings
are shown to be free to
choose the path they will take, as well as being
subject to the plan of
Yahweh. Thus the doctrine of the "
important feature of
the book of Proverbs.
192
CHAPTER
FOUR
EMOTIONAL SUFFERING IN THE BOOK OF
PROVERBS
Introduction
This chapter will focus on the emotional aspects of
innocent suffering
in the book of
Proverbs. Prominent in this part of the study are the words
ble,
HaUr and wp,n,. The broader meanings and usages of
these terms are
well established and
need not be discussed in detail. However, this does not
mean there are no
passages where the meaning of one or another of these
words is unclear. The
first part of the chapter will set out the various
shades of meaning these
words carry. Then I will show briefly that many
similar ideas are found
in other Semitic languages as well as in Egyptian.
The final part of the
chapter will be a detailed look at the various proverbs
and sayings where the
emotional aspects of innocent suffering are referred
to.
I.
The Somatic Expression of Ancient Hebrew Psychology
This section will focus on the anatomical terms used in
describing or
attributing human
emotions. First, the Hebrew terms will be examined
and then the similar
ideas in the languages and cultures which
surrounded and, in some
cases, may have influenced ancient
to the vast scope of
this topic, the discussion will of necessity be limited.
A. Pre-Scientific Terminology and
Broad Meanings
1. Heart (ble/bbAle)
The most prominent word in the study of
Hebrew
193
psychology is the word ble or bbAle.
Because of the large number of
occurrences in the
Hebrew Bible1 the discussion here must be limited to
the major and
prototypical uses of this term since it carries a great many
shades of meaning, thus
the discussion will be of a general nature. Among
its meanings are: (1)
the anatomical organ, (2) the center of inner life, (3)
the center of ethical
and religious life, (4) a representative term of a whole
person, and (5) a
remote place.2
a. ble
as the Anatomical Organ
In a pre-scientific society it was
difficult to locate
and descibe the
physiological functions of most internal organs. However,
the heart was easily
located in the thoracic cavity due to the sound made
when the valves close.
The use of ble in
reference to the anatomical organ is rare in the OT.
Jer 4:19;3
Ps 38:11[10]; 2 Kgs 9:24; Hos 13:8 are places where this usage is
in view. Another possibility
is 1 Sam 25:37-38.4 2 Kgs 4:31 may refer to the
1 H.-J. Fabry, "bl," TWAT, vol. 4 (1984), 420: "leb/lebab begegnet im
AT
insgesamt 853ma1, davon im hebr. AT leb 596mal..., lebab 249ma1...,
in
den
2 See the discussion of
David G. Burke in "Heart," ISBE,
vol. 2 (1982),
650-653.
3 H.-W. Wolff, Anthropology of the Old Testament (
Fortress,
1974), 42, apparently feels very confident in calling this angina
pectoris
and a heart attack (myocardial infarction). At best we can say that
the
stress Jeremiah went through brought on an acute case of cardiac
arrhythmia,
but no more. Wolff’s assessment bases too much on non-
technical
language and attempts to diagnose by non-specific symptoms.
Jeremiah's
complaint of inner pain may be angina pectoris, but this does
not
require myocardial infarction to result.
4 Wolff, Anthropology, 41, calls this a stroke.
It could have been a
194
lack of sound within the
chest cavity, though ble
does not occur.
b. ble
as the
As an indicator of inner life or
psychical activity
the words ble/bbAle may refer to emotions (Exod 4:14;
Deut 28:47; Prov 14:13),
volition and purpose
(Deut 8:2; 1 Sam 2:35; Prov 16:9), or intellectual pro-
cesses or perception
(Deut 29:3[4]; 1 Kgs 8:47; Prov 18:15) and knowledge
(Prov 2:2; 2:10;
4:4-5). As such these mental activities are those which
English-speaking people
would attribute to the "mind." However, the
Hebrew language had no
separate equivalent for "mind" and ancient
scientific knowledge
had not progressed sufficiently to understand the
function of the brain.
c. ble
as the
By this usage ble often most approximates what
modern English speakers
refer to as "conscience."5 Since the heart
functions as the seat
of moral and ethical thought it may sometimes be used
with adjectives such as
"pure" (rBa
Ps 24:4; 73:1) or "blameless" (Mlw
2 Chr
15:17) or a large number
of other terms.6
coronary
occlusion just as easily as a cerebrovascular accident. The
language
of the text, like the medical knowledge of the day, is not suf-
ficiently
clear to make an accurate diagnosis. Note Ronald F. Youngblood's
comments
on Nabal's death in "1, 2 Samuel," in Expositor's Bible Commen-
tary, ed. F.
Gaebelein, 12 vols. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 3.763.
5 According to Burke,
"Heart," 652. Cf. 2 Sam 24:6[5].
6 See Gen 20:5; 1 Kgs 9:4;
Deut 9:5; 1 Kgs 3:6; Ps 119:7; 1 Sam 7:3; Jer
3:10;
Neh 9:8; Ps 78:37; 112:7. The negative qualities are mentioned as well:
Ps
101:4; Prov 11:20; Jer 23:9.
195
d.
ble as Representative of
the Whole
The heart sometimes represents the whole
person, Prov 24:17; Lev
26:41; Deut 11:16; etc. This is a figure of speech
known as synechdoche.
An example of this can also be found in
Ostracon III:
ky. lb ‘bdk dwh. m’z. slhk. ‘l. ‘bd
For your servant has been sick at
heart ever since you sent (that
letter) to your servant.7
e. ble
as a
The fact of the heart being an internal
organ
which was, by and
large, inaccessible led to anthropomorphic expressions
such as the "heart
of the sea" (Exod 15:8; Prov 23:34; 30:19; Ezek 27:4; 28:2;
etc.). In this
expression it refers to unreachable depths. There is also the
expression "heart
of heaven" in Deut 4:11 which probably refers to the
heights or the
innermost part of heaven.
2. Spirit (HaUr)
Etymologically this word is connected with a.
root which
occurs in all but the
eastern branch (Akkadian) of the Semitic languages,
and points to an
initial awareness of air in motion, particularly "wind."8
Thus HaUr is a term for a natural power, the
wind, in 113 out of 389
7 Dennis Pardee, Handbook of Ancient Hebrew Letters,
SBLSBS 15
(Chico:
Scholars Press, 1982), 84; cf. ANET,
322. Both of these translations
have
"your servant" even though there is no second person suffix on `bd.
8 A. R. Johnson, The Vitality of the Individual in the
Thought of
Ancient
196
occurrences (see e. g.,
Hos 8:7) which is slightly less than one-third of its
occurrences in the
Hebrew Bible.9 According to E. Kamlah:
The idea behind ruah is the extraordinary fact that something as
intangible as air should move; at the
same time it is not so much the
movement per se which excites attention, but rather the energy
manifested by such movement. The basic
meaning of ruah,
therefore, is more or less that of "blowing."10
Other usages include
breath (Judg 15:19; Num 16:22), the animate principle
of life (Isa 42:5; Job
10:12), the seat of emotions (Ps 106:33; Job 7:11; Num
5:14), intellectual
functions and will (Ps 32:2; 78:8), and then finally, God's
Spirit (Ps 51:11).
Again due to the large number of possible examples only a
few of the
representative ones have been cited.
3. Soul (wp,n,)
This word has such a large number of
occurrences and
breadth of meaning and
usages it is difficult to discuss in a brief way. The
common meaning running
throughout the Semitic languages in which it
occurs (Hebrew,
Akkadian and Ugaritic) is "throat," an exception being
Arabic.11
Some of the more obvious examples of wp,n,
being used as throat
are Isa 5:14; Ps
69:2[1]; Jonah 2:6[5]. Other uses include animate forms of
9 Wolff, Anthropology, 32; but cf. Johnson, Vitality, 24, n. 1. Wolff
cites
378 occurrences in Hebrew, 11 in Aramaic. For a breakdown of the
word
in the various blocks of the Hebrew Bible see
TWAT, vol. 7 (1993),
393-418. For a more topical treatment see F. Baum-
gartel,
"pneu?ma, pneumatiko<j, etc." TDNT, vol. 6 (1968), 359-367.
10 Eberhard Kamlah,
"Spirit," NIDNTT, 3.690.
11 Johnson, Vitality,
4.
197
life or life itself
(Prov 8:36; Ps 30:4[3]; Lev 17:11; 24:17-18; Deut 12:23), person
or individual (Lev
18:29; 23:30; Jer 43:6), the locale of emotion (2 Sam 5:8; Jer
13:17; Ps 35:9), the
seat of desire (Deut 12:15; 14:26; 1 Sam 2:16; Ps 107:5, 9)
and a form of personal
pronoun (Gen 12:13; Judg 16:30 Job 16:4; Ps
54:6[4]).12
B. Similar Uses in Egyptian, Akkadian
and Ugaritic
The initial section of this discussion will
address briefly the
Egyptian meanings
behind the two words translated "heart," ib and ha.ty;
then the uses of
cognates in other Semitic languages will be mentioned,
including Akkadian and
Ugaritic.
1. Egyptian
a. Heart (ib and ha.ty)
Many of the same meanings of
the Hebrew word
for heart can also be
found in ancient Egyptian, even though Egyptian and
Hebrew are not cognate
languages.13 The semantic difference between ib
and ha.ty is difficult to determine. In
Egyptian, "heart" may stand for the
anatomical organ, the
seat of reason and understanding, the residence of
feelings, or may
represent the character or nature of humankind, among
other things.14
12 See the categories of
Ellis R. Brotzman, "Man and the Meaning of
wp,n,," BibSac 145 (1988): 401-407.
13 N. Shupak, Where Can Wisdom be Found? The Sage's
Language
in the Bible and
in Ancient Egyptian Literature, OBO 130 (Goittingen: Van-
denhoeck
& Ruprecht, 1993), 297-299. I use cognate in the sense of having
the
same root and used with similar meaning(s).
14 See Shupak's discussion
in Where Can Wisdom Be Found?, 299-
311;
and H. Brunner, "Herz," LA,
vol. 2 (1977), 1158-1168.
198
b.
Spirit (ba and ka)
This aspect of Egyptian anthropology is
almost
completely lacking in
the Israelite view, and Egyptian has no equivalent for
the Hebrew HaUr.15 The Hebrew ideas
contained in HaUr
are not used in the
word ka which is sometimes translated
"spirit," or ba, the
"soul." Since
ba
and ka are two separate elements in
Egyptian anthropology they will be
given separate
treatment.
In Egyptian, another word, akh, is sometimes translated "spirit"
because of its relation
to the Egyptian word "to shine, to be resplendent,"
and thus signifies the
transcendent life-form of a person and the trans-
figured existence in
the afterlife.16
(1) ba
This word has been discussed
at some
length above in chapter
one regarding the Egyptian document called The
Dispute
of a Man with His Ba.
(2) ka
The ka or the "double" of a person is some-
times seen as the life
force within. H. Seebass says, "Der Ka is der
‘Doppelganger’ des
Menschen, bezeichnet aber zugleich "Lebenskraft' und
‘Nahrungsmittel.’"17
This spirit-double comes into existence when the
15 See S. Tengstrom, "HaUr," TWAT, vol. 7 (1993), 391-392, for a
brief
discussion
of the Egyptian concept, which seems tied to the "air" and its
association
with the Luftgott Amun.
16 John Baines,
"Society, Morality and Religious Practice," in
Religion in
Ancient
Press,
1991), 145; cf. E. Otto, "Ach," LA, vol. 1 (1975), 49-52.
17 H. Seebass, “wp,n,," TWAT, vol. 5 (1986), 533.
199
child is born and
enables the generations to continue and receive offerings
in the next life.18
The ka can be seen as something
passed down from
parent to child or from
one god to another.19
2. Akkadian and Ugaritic
a. Akkadian
(1) libbu
In Akkadian libbu carries the same range
of meanings as Hebrew ble/bbAle.20 Included in its many
uses are heart as
an anatomical organ, as
the center of inner life, including emotions,
volition, purpose, wish
or desire, intellectual activity, and a remote or inner
place.
(2) napistu
Since the root rwh does not occur in the
eastern branch of the
Semitic languages, the discussion will pick up with
napistu.21
There is a very wide range of meaning displayed in this root.
The large number of
possibilities include life, vigor, vitality, good health,
living things, person,
somebody, (negated) nobody, capital case, personnel,
persons of menial
status, animals counted in a herd, body, self, breath,
18 Baines,
"Society," 145; cf. also P. Kaplony, "Ka," LA, vol. 3 (1980),
275-277.
19 See Kaplony,
"Ka," 276; L. H. Lesko, "Ancient Egyptian
mogonies
and Cosmologies," in Religion in
Ancient Egypt, ed. B. E. Shafer
(Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1991), 92; and Pyramid Text §600.
20 For an extensive list of
the occurrences of libbu see CAD, vol. 9
(1973),
164-176.
21 As indicated above, see
Johnson, Vitality, 23; and S.
Tengstrom,
"HaUr" TWAT, vol. 7 (1993), 390.
200
livelihood, provisions,
sustenance, throat, neck, opening, air hole and
neckerchief.22
b. Ugaritic
(1) lb
In the literature recovered
from Ras Sham-
ra the word translated
"heart" is not as prominent as one might have
expected. Too much
significance should not be placed on this, however,
since the relatively
small number of occurrences of lb may
be no more than
accidental. Similar to
its cognate languages, Ugaritic uses lb
to mean the
anatomical organ, the
seat of emotion, the seat of desire, the locale of
intellectual activity
and as reference to a remote place.23
(2) rwh
In the west Semitic languages
rwh carries
many similar meanings
already attested in the above discussion on HaUr,
making further comments
unnecessary.
(3) nps
Due to the similarities
between the Hebrew
and Ugaritic languages,
many of the meanings of Hebrew wp,n,
and Ugaritic
nps overlap. Gordon
gives the primary meaning of nps
(possibly napsu)
as "soul,"
along with "appetite" and "sexual appetite." He compares it
to
22 CAD, vol. 11/2 (1980), 296; cf. Seebass, "wp,n,," TWAT,
vol. 5 (1986),
535.
23 See the references
listed under lb in J. Aistleitner, Worterbuch
der Ugaritischen
Sprache
(Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1965), 1616-1.67; as well
as
R. E. Whitaker, A Concordance of the
Ugaritic Literature (
201
Hebrew and Arabic
cognates which mean "appetite," "soul," "person,"
or,
when used collectively,
"people." It may also mean "throat" like the
Akkadian npst.24
In summarizing this section we can observe that the words
used in
this study of Hebrew
psychology have similar uses in Egyptian and other
Semitic languages,
although Egyptian contains some ideas and implica-
tions the Semitic
languages did not have due to cultural and religious
factors.
II.
Analysis of Specific Proverbs Related to Emotional Suffering
The previous section on terminology has helped to prepare
the way
for this part of the
study by laying a foundation for the various terms used
as references to
emotions, or the location of the experiencing of emotions.
First I will look at
individual proverbs which use ble
in a setting of
emotional suffering,
then HaUr, and lastly wp,n,.
A. Heart (ble)
There are
six proverbs which will be discussed in this section:
12:25; 13:12; 14:10,
13; 15:13; 25:20. In each case the discussion will be
limited to issues which
are directly tied to interpretation along the main
theme.
1. 12:25
This saying is set in antithetical
parallelism and con-
tains a word-play on
the similar sounds of the last word in each colon:
24 UT, 3.446.
202
:hn.AH,m.;Way;
bOF rbAdAv; hn.AH,w;ya wyxi-bl,b; hgAxAD;
The grammar in this
proverb is difficult. According to Whybray the verse
has two grammatical
anomalies: first, hgAxAD;,
a feminine noun, has a mas-
culine verb, hn.AH,w;ya; and secondly, both verbs in the
saying have feminine
suffixes instead of
masculine suffixes.25 One
attempt to solve this problem
is to see the third
feminine singular suffix on the verb referring to ble.26
The problem of the
gender of the verbs27 may possibly be solved by com-
paring them to the
energic use of the n
as in Ugaritic.28 These
"nunnated"
forms in Hebrew would
bear witness to archaic forms, or at least the
appearance of such.
Whybray sees no evidence of editing to make larger
structures in
chapter twelve but
notes that vv. 14-25 are almost all concerned with various
25 R.
198.
BHS suggests emending the hnA.H,-- endings to Un.H, the third
masculine
singular
siffix.
26 See W. L. McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach, OTL,
(Philadel-
phia:
that
does not resort to emendation see Otto Ploger, Spruche Salomos, BKAT
17
(Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1984), 147.
27 G. R. Driver's
collection of texts in which there is disagreement
between
the gender of the subject and the verb contains several proverbs, so
this
may not be quite as unusual as one might think, see his "Hebrew
Studies,"
Journal of the Royal Asian Society
(1948): 176. See also Stephen A.
Geller,
Parallelism in Early Biblical Poetry,
Harvard Semitics Monograph
20
(Missoula: Scholars Press, 1979), 24.
28 Cf. UT 1.72-73; and S. Segert, Basic
Grammar of the Ugaritic
Language (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1984), 91.
203
aspects of speech.29
In the structures suggested by Meinhold
and Garrett,
there is agreement of a
vague sort, with Meinhold seeing 12:24-28 as a
group of proverbs while
Garrett expands it to 12:23-28.30 In Garrett's
structure there is a
six-verse parallel pattern:
A : Caution
and incaution (v. 23)
B: Diligence and laziness (v. 24)
C: Anxiety and joy (v. 25)
A': Caution
and incaution (v. 26)
B': Laziness and diligence (v. 27)
C': Life
and immortality (v. 28)31
Meinhold goes to greater lengths to tie vv. 24-28 to the
previous
proverbs of the
chapter:
Vom Inhalt her ergibt sich, dass sie
alle mehr oder weniger deutlich
auf Vorangegangenes im Kapitel bezogen
sind. V.24 and 27 gehoren
durch je ein Vorkommen von
"Nachlassigkeit" and "fleissig," die
zueinander chiastisch stehen, zusammen
and klingeri mit den
Thema Fleiss-Faulheit an V.11 and V.9
an. V.25 erwahnt ein "gutes
Wort" and nimmt die Thematik
Rechtes and falsches Reden der
Verse 13-23 auf. V.26 enthalt den
Gegensatz Gerechter-Frevler and
verweist damit auf die Verse 1-12;
V.28 bildet dazu einen generellen
Abschlusssatz, in dem
"Gerechtigkeit" erwahnt wird and--wie in
V.26--das Wort fur "Weg" vorkommt.32
29 Whybray, Proverbs, 190.
30 See A. Meinhold, Die Spruche, 2 Teile (
lag,
1991), 1.213-214; D. A. Garrett, Proverbs.
Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs,
NAC
vol. 14 (Nashville: Broadman, 1993), 133.
31 Garrett, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 133. Garrett's
suggested poetic
structures
sometimes suffer from a lack of real verbal links between the
parallels.
His titles for the various components can be vague and general at
times,
and often not reflective of true parallelism.
32 Meinhold, Die Spruche, 1.214.
204
Both
see the chiastic structure in vv. 24 and 27. Since 12:25 fits no
clear structural
pattern we will leave it as a proverb that is not joined to any
obvious context.
The root of the verb in the first line is a matter of
debate. As it
appears in the MT, the
word is generally seen as based on the root hHw,
"to
bow down."33
Hubbard suggests HUw
"to sink" as the root34 (cf. NKJV,
"depression")
and cites similar usage in reference to emotional despair in
Ps 44:26[27] and Lam
3:20. Regardless of whether the root is hHw
or
HUw the
notion of going down is
present and the contrast with the verb in the next
line, hn.AH,m;.Way; shows it to be a
negative idea. Dahood offers the possibility
that this word is
derived from the root NHw
on the basis of Ugaritic parallels
and the Hebrew noun NyHiwA "inflammation," and suggests
"feverish" as a
translation here.35
However, this seems strained, and there is no good
reason to seek a
parallel in Ugaritic when there are two roots in Hebrew
that fit the context
better.
The root of the word translated "anxious" occurs
thirteen times in the
OT. It signifies
anxiety, with a shading toward the meaning "fear" in some
places. In virtually
every occurrence it seems to refer to the cares and
concerns of everyday
life and survival.36 Despite the assurances of many
33 HAL, vol. 4 (1990), 1351: beugen,
niederdrucken.
34 D. A. Hubbard, Proverbs (Dallas: Word, 1989), 223; cf.
also G. R.
Driver,
"Hebrew Studies," 176.
35 M. J. Dahood, Proverbs and Northwest Semitic Philology (
Pontifical
Biblical Institute, 1963), 27.
36 1 Sam 9:5; 10:2; Jer
17:8; 38:19; 42:16; 49:23; Josh 22:24; Ezek 4:16;
12:18,
19. There seem to be two exceptions: Isa 57:11 speaks of fear and
dread
of other gods, while Ps 38:19[18] refers to being troubled by sin.
205
other proverbs such as
12:11, 12, 14, 21, 24 and 27, that hard work, right-
eousness and wisdom
will pay off, it is interesting to note the formulation of
a proverb like this. In
a day and time when subsistence living was the
norm it is easy to see
how this kind of anxiety might weigh a person down.
Since the cause of the
anxiety is not specified we must leave it as the
general stresses of
daily life. In this setting the next line of the saying
becomes all the more
important. A "good word" to cheer or encourage
would have been an
important show of support and concern. The pressure
on a parent to provide
for the needs of a family must have been immense at
times, since survival
depended on the parent's ability in trade or agri-
culture, and was
subject to the vagaries of climate and nature, quite apart
from any sin or
wrongdoing on their part.
2. 13:12
This proverb is also antithetic in its
parallelism and
comments on the results
of hope being delayed, deferred or being "long
drawn out,"37
the word hkAwA.mum; being
based on a root; (j`wm)
meaning "to
draw, drag,
seize."38
In examining the poetic structure of the small unit
composed of
13:12-19 there is
general agreement among those who see smaller poems in
the book of Proverbs
that the phrases translated a "longing fulfilled" in
37 D. Kidner, The Proverbs: An Introduction and Commentary,
TOTC
(Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1964), 102, who says the verb here
means
delayed or denied by all reasonable expectations.
38 HAL, vol. 2 (1974), 610: packen,
wegraffen, hinziehen, ziehen,
schleppen. In the pu'al with reference to Prov 13:12: hingehalten.
206
13:12b (hxABa hvAxETa) and 13:19a (hyAh;ni hvAxETa) form an inclusio.39 My own
suggestion for
structuring this small poem is as follows:40
A 13:12 :hxAbA
hvAxETa Myy.iHa Cfev; ble-hlAHEma hkAwA.mum; tl,H,OT
B 13:13
:MlA.wuy; xUh hvAc;mi xreyvi Ol lb,HAye
rbAdAl; zBA
B’ 13:14
:tv,mA yweq;mo.mi rUslA Myyi.Ha rOqm;
MkAHA traOT
C 13:15 :NtAyxe
Mydig;Bo j`r,d,v; NHe-NT,yi bOF-lk,We
C 13:16
:tl,U,xi Wrop;yi lysik;U tfadAb; hW,fEya
MUrfA-lKA
C 13:17 :xPer;ma
MyniUmx< ryciv; frAB; lPoyi fwArA j`xAl;ma
B 13:18
:dBAkuyi tHakaOT rmeOwv; rsAUm fareOP
NOlqAv; wyre
A' 13:19 :frAme rUs MyliysiK; tbafEOtv; wp,nAl; braf<t, hyAh;ni
hvAxETa
The A elements of the poem contain the saying that caused
this
passage to be included
in this study. The issue of the "sick heart"
(ble-hlAHEma) in v. 12a is less a piece of
advice and more a psychological
observation, cf.
12:25a. V. 19a contains a similar idea to v. 12b but the
parallel line in 19b is
virtually unrelated, leading Whybray to assert that the
two lines in v. 19 were
originally two separate sayings. The reason for their
joining was due to the
similarities in sound between the two words which
begin the respective
lines, hvAxETa and hbAfeOT, which may have led to their
39 Whybray, Proverbs, 200, 205; Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 137;
O.
Ploger, Spruche Salomos, 162;
Meinhold, Die Spruche, 1.222-223.
40 My suggested structure
is more similar to Whybray's than to
Garrett's
or Meinhold's, though Whybray (Proverbs,
205) believes v. 17 is an
exception to the poetic
structure but does not enlarge on this thought.
207
association in oral
transmission.41 Ploger disagrees, saying that the
second line presents a
warning that to have one's desire fulfilled depended
on making the correct
decision to turn from evil.42 Thus there is no need
to hold to two
originally independent sayings which were later joined in this
saying.
Prov 16:6b says by the fear of Yahweh one turns from evil (frAme rUs),
the same phrase as in
v. 19b. In 16:6b we see the combination of turning
from evil with the
theme or driving force behind the book of Proverbs, that of
the fear of Yahweh.43
In v. 19b the opposite is stated. A completely differ-
ent system of values is
in operation regarding turning from sin. Those who
fear Yahweh turn from
sin, but for fools the same action is deemed an
abominatic.
The B elements are centered around the topic of
instruction, with vv.
13-14 being virtually
identical in meaning. The terms rbD,
hvcm, and hrvT
are often used
interchangeably in the first nine chapters to denote instruc-
tion,44 and
it is also the subject of 13:1. These two sayings reflect the
41 Whybray, Proverbs, 207-208, citing F. Delitzsch,
see C. F. Keil and
F.
Delitzsch, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song
of Solomon, tr. M. Ea.ston (1872,
repr.
also
attributes the association of these two lines to alliteration.
42 Spruche Salomos, 162-163.
43 The association of
fearing Yahweh and turning from evil is also
found
in Prov 3:7 where the verbs are couched as imperatives. Note that the
assessment
of Job's character in Job 1:2; 2:3 and the conclusion to the
wisdom
poem in Job 28 also combine these expressions, although Myhlx or
yndx is used rather than hvhy.
44 For rbD see 4:4b, 20a;
8:6a; for hvcm see
2:lb; 3:lb; 4:4c; 6:20a; 7:lb,
2a;
and for hrvT
see 1:8b; 3:la; 4:2b; 6:20b; 7:2b. The latter two terms often
occur
as parallel members.
208
doctrine of the two
ways, which is very prominent in the first nine chapters
of Proverbs. The goals
of instruction are stated positively and negatively in
vv. 13-14 as a matter
of life and death. Those who obey the instruction enjoy
the reward, while those
who ignore it are trapped in the snares of death.45
The fountain of life
(v. 14) is an image similar to the tree of life in v. 12, and
is not intended to
validate foreign mythology.
In v. 18 the words rsAUm
and tHakaOT are used in a
saying that empha-
sized the importance of
the discipline and instruction offered. The reward
and punishment
mentioned revolve around the social values of honor and
esteem in the eyes of
the community. Scorning instruction and ignoring
discipline will bring a
heavy penalty in poverty and shame. On the other
hand, observing the
teaching of the wise will bring life and honor.46
The C elements are three examples of those who fail to heed
the
instruction given.
Cited for their lack of insight are the unfaithful, the fool
and the untrustworthy
messenger. The unfaithful person will have diffi-
culty in interpersonal
relationships because of their lack of integrity. In a
society where personal
integrity was often based on a person's good word,
the person who was
unfaithful would have a difficult time in a barter
system. Since their
word may not be taken at face value others in the
community might be
hesitant to trade with them. The actions of the fool
45 McKane, Proverbs, 455, suggests a Canaanite
background for the
image
of the god Mot as a hunter or fowler entrapping the unwary in his
snares.
In a book that is thoroughly monotheistic and Yahwistic, the
burden
of proof rests with McKane to provide more evidence for this
assertion.
46 See the previous chapter
for a discussion of honor and shame, and
the
importance of these two ideas in ancient Israelite society.
209
have already been
discussed at length in the previous chapter and need not
be repeated here. The
untrustworthy envoy was one who delivered
messages for another,
whether in the royal court or outside it. In a day
when communication was
done by messengers who were often entrusted
with the power of
negotiation for, e. g., the price of livestock or the like, one
who could not be
trusted to negotiate fairly or truthfully would cause
problems for both
parties in the negotiation process.47
Returning to the main saying in this discussion (13:12), we
observe
that the heart is sick (hlAHEma) when hope (tl,H,OT) is delayed.48 The word
translated
"sick" can have a variety of meanings, including sick, weak,
diseased, grieved,
injured, etc. Essentially it is a general term for physical
weakness. Seybold says
of this word, "Das Bedeutungspotential sowohl
des Verbums wie der
Nomina ist au charakterisieren als allgemeine
Bezeichung eines ‘Zustands
korperlicher Schwache.’"49 The root hlH is
the basis of the proper
name NOlH;ma (Ruth 1:2, 5;
4:9), one of Naomi's sons
who died young. However
this root can also be used to refer to conditions
other than sickness,
Jer 12:13; Ezek 34:4, 21; etc. Since the root can have
such a broad range of
meanings it is difficult to place this proverb
specifically in the
realm of physical illness to the exclusion of emotional
pain. Hubbard takes it
as depression rather than physical pain.50
47 McKane, Proverbs, 460-461.
48 Paronomasia is present
here to call attention to the contrast
between
hlAHEma and tl,H,OT.
49 K. Seybold, "hlH," TWAT, vol. 2 (1977), 964.
50 Proverbs, 196. Building on Kidner's observation regarding the
translation
of hkAwA.mum;, Hubbard says that when hope is long drawn out, i.
e.,
210
Disappointment
or discouragement is set in contrast to the second
line of the proverb:
when a longing is fulfilled it is likened to a tree of life.
The question of
interpreting the image of the tree of life is a matter of on-
going debate. Some see
it as an allusion to the tree of life in Gen 2:9; 3:23-24;
or possibly to a tree
growing in the temple grove which was constantly fed
by the nearby streams
of the water of life.51 Christa Kayatz discusses the
tree of life in
connection with taking hold of a particular tree in order to
gain eternal life, a
thought that was current in the mythology of the
Egyptian cult of the
dead.52 W. L. McKane is of the opinion that the
expression "tree
of life" in Proverbs is "just a pretty figure of speech."53
Whybray suggests that
the word Cfe
is more exactly "wood" or a wooden
object, and frequently
means stick or staff (2 Sam 21:19; 23:7; 2 Kgs 6:6; Ezek
37:16), so the phrase
may be more accurately "staff of life."54 The difficulty
with Whybray's
suggestion is that "staff of life" is no more clear in its intent
or image than
"tree of life." And accepting it as the translation in this
saying suffers from the
absence of usage elsewhere in the OT. It may be
better to accept the
idea of a tree in this proverb, realizing the value of a
living tree in a hot,
barren desert region for its shade and fruit.55
rewards
for hard work do not appear within a reasonable schedule, hope-
lessness
and the accompanying depression often set in.
51 See G. Widengren, The King and the Tree of Life in Ancient
Near
Eastern Religion
(Uppsala:
Lundquistska, 1951), 19.
52 C. Kayatz, Studien zu Proverbien 1-9, WMANT 22
(Neukirchen-
Vluyn:
Neukirchener Verlag, 1966), 105-107, cf. plate opposite 105.
53 McKane, Proverbs, 296.
54 Proverbs, 67.
55 Whybray alludes to the possibility of this
interpretation (Proverbs,
211
There
are a few distant parallels to the idea of eating something to
acquire eternal life in
ANE literature. In the Gilgamesh Epic56 Utna-
pishtim gives Gilgamesh
a plant, which if eaten, would bestow eternal life.
Unfortunately, a snake
eats it while Gilgamesh is bathing. The Akkadian
myth Adapa also shares
the theme of eating something in order to acquire
eternal life, but in
the case of Adapa it is the bread or food of life rather
than fruit from a tree,
as in Genesis.57 Some of these stories contain
elements that are
similar to the account of the fall in Genesis, but the
contexts are very
different and should not be pressed too closely as
parallels.58
In all four occurrences of the expression Myyi.Ha Cfe in Proverbs (3:18;
11:30; 13:12; 15:4) the
definite article is missing. This is not the case in Gen
2:9; 3:23-24, where the
phrase reads Myyi.Haha Cfe.
The absence of the article in
Proverbs may be so that
readers will not make a direct association with the
tree of life in
Genesis.59 In this case Kidner is correct in seeing this
expression as a
"graceful metaphor."60 It is also due to the infrequent
use
67)
in reference to the occurrence of the same expression in Prov 3:18. He
draws
attention to Mesopotamian literature where eating the fruit of a
sacred
tree conferred immortality on the eater. Though I do not believe this
is
the concept behind this expression in Proverbs, the translation "tree of
life"
should be retained.
56 11:268-269; ANET, 96.
57 ANET, 102.
58 Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis 1-15, WBC vol. 1 (Waco: Word,
1987),
52-53.
See also Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of
Genesis, Chapters 1-17,
NICOT
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 162-163.
59 E. B. Smick, "Tree
of Knowledge, Tree of Life," ISBE,
vol. 4 (1988),
901.
60 Kidner, The Proverbs, 65. For a discussion of
expressions regard-
212
of the definite article
in poetry,61 and this is the reason for the difference in
the two occurrences. It
is simply prose as opposed to poetry.
While we may never know exactly what the Hebrew sages had
in
mind regarding the
"tree of life" it seems obvious that it was meant to be in
contrast to the
"heartsick" person. This contrast will be best understood in
light of a metaphor in
the absence of any solid indications of the mythical
notions associated with
the tree of life, whether it be in Genesis or in foreign
mythology.
The frustration or discouragement in this proverb is not
tied to
actions that the
heartsick person can be blamed for. This person seems to
be a victim of harsh
circumstances that apparently work against or hinder
someone from achieving
goals or receiving rewards for the work invested.
3. 14:10; 14:13
The two observations on human nature in
14:10 and
14:13 are part of a
larger poem which occurs in 14:8-15.62
A 14:8 :hmAr;mi
MyliysiK; tl,U,xiv; OKr;Da NybihA MUrfA tmak;HA
B 14:9 :NOcrA MyriwAy; NybeU MwAxA CyliyA Mylivix<
C 14:10
:rzA brafAt;yi-xlo OtHAm;Wib;U Owp;na
tr.amA fadeOy ble
D 14:11 :Hayrip;ya
MyriwAy; lh,xov; dmewA.yi MyfiwAr; tyBe
ing
life and death in Proverbs see his "Subject Study: Life and Death,"
53-56,
esp.
54.
61
See the discussion in F. I. Andersen and A. D. Forbes, "’Prose
Particle’
Counts of the Hebrew Bible," in The
Word of the Lord Shall Go
Sixtieth
Birthday,
ed. C. L. Meyers and M. P. O'Connor (
American
Schools of Oriental Research, 1983), 165-183.
62 Adapted from Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 142.
213
D' 14:12 :tv,mA-yker;Da
h.tAyriHExa wyxi-ynep;li rwAyA j`r,D, wye
C' 14:13
:hgAUt hHAm;Wi h.tAyriHExav; ble-bxak;yi
qOHW;Bi-MGa
B' 14:14 :bOF wyxi vylAfAmeU ble gUs fBaW;yi vykArAD;mi
A' 14:15 :OrwuxEla
NybiyA MUrfAv; rbADA-lkAl; NymixEya ytiP,
This series of proverbs appears to be set in a carefully
balanced
chiasmus expounding the
general theme of appearance and reality. Each
saying is antithetic.
The two proverbs that are our immediate concern are
the C elements of the
poem and make statements regarding emotions that
are fleeting and
temporary, or simply superficial.
The poem is bracketed by the chiastic occurrence of the
word MUrf
(14:8a, 15b) and its
contrast with MyliysiK;
(14:8b) and ytiP,
(14:15a). In the A
element (vv. 8, 15) the
prudent one63 discerns his way or steps, while fools
lack any sense of
direction64 (hmAr;mi)
and the simple believes everything he
hears (rbADA-lkA). Essentially the fool and the
simple lack discernment (Nyb).
The B element presents some daunting grammatical problems,
most
notably v. 9, which
literally reads "Guilt (or a guilt offering) mocks fools." A
small emendation of the
verb from singular to plural would allow us to read
"Fools mock a
guilt offering," or "Fools mock at guilt." The B element picks
up the vocabulary of
the previous saying in its reference to the Mylivix<
(cf. v.
8b), presenting a
contrast between the Mylivix<
and MyriwAy;, the former
63 The word MUrf sometimes means
cunning. Cf. HAL., vol. 3 (1983),
839:
Klugheit. Whybray (Proverbs, 214)
suggests "intelligent person" as a
translation
for MUrf
in these sayings.
64 So McKane, Proverbs, 466-467.
214
mocking the MwAxA, while the latter discerns (Nyb cf. v. 8a) what is deemed
NOcrA.65
The issue of retribution for sin is in
view in v. 14, the MwAxA
in v. 9
being a parallel
element to the root fbW,
which does double duty for both
lines in v. 14. In 14a
it carries the sense of being filled, satisfied or having
abundance in a negative
sense and 14b has a positive connotation.
The C element of this small unit contains the two proverbs
that are
the main foci of this
study. Both refer to the ble
as possessing a condition
that is not evident to
the outward appearance. As the seat of knowledge the
ble
knows bitterness (tr.amA),
a word based on the root rrm.
The adjective
rm
is frequently used to express an emotional response to a destructive or
heart-rending
situation, cf. 1 Sam 1:10; Job 3:20; 7:11 10:1; Gen 27:34; Est
4:1; Isa 38:15; etc.
The merism of rrm
and HmW in v. 10 intends to
cover the whole range
of human emotions and
the comment in this proverb refers to feelings too
deep to share in
public.67 Others see this saying referring to emotional
isolation.68
This would be very unusual in a culture which downplayed
individualistic expression,
yet the originator(s) of this proverb knew there
was a sense in which
each person is a lone individual with feelings and
65 According to McKane, Proverbs, 476. For discussions of the
singu-
lar
verbs with plural subjects see Whybray, Proverbs,
214-215; Ploger,
Spruche Salomos, 167.
66 An unusual spelling due
to the dagesh forte in the r, a consonant
which
usually does not geminate. tramA occurs twice in
Gen 26:35 (without
the
dagesh) and these are its only occurrences in the Hebrew Bible.
67 Hubbard, Proverbs, 317.
68 Kidner, Proverbs, 107-108; McKane, Proverbs, 471.
215
situations that may not
be shared with others.69 There are other proverbs
which state or imply
that only God has access to the most private parts of
the human heart, 17:3;
21:2; 24:12; cf. also Ps 44:22[21].
The point of v. 13 seems to be that there is no complete
separation of
one emotion from the
other, even the extremes. Or that even in the best of
times there may be underlying
grief over something, or that all emotional
states are temporary.
The word translated "ache" in v. 13 is based on the
root bxk. This root can be understood as pain or
sorrow. Its cognates in
Aramaic and Akkadian
emphasize physical pain, while in Arabic the
cognate stresses the
emotional aspect.70 The term paralleled with bxak;yi is
hgAUt,
from the root hgy,
a noun that occurs also in Prov 10:1; 17:21; Ps 119:28.
The use of these two
terms in a parallel construction shows them to refer to
an inner pain or
emotional distress, without reference to a physical aspect,
or at least; placing
any physical aspect that might be present in a secondary
position.71
The gender-matched parallelism of v. 13 functions to
heighten the
antithesis or contrast
between the two parts of the saying.72 If vv. 10 and 13
69 Whybray (Proverbs, 215) is of the opinion that
this proverb shows
awareness
of the inviolate part of every person which no one can fully
penetrate.
70 J. N. Oswalt, "bxaKA," TWOT, 1.425.
71 S. Wagner, "hgAyA," TWAT, vol. 3 (1982), 407: "Mit ‘Kummer’
ist
nicht
an einer einzelnen physischen oder psychischen Schmerz gedacht,
sondern
an eine Grundstimmung das Lebensgefi.ihls, die sich aus dem
unterschiedlichsten
Erleben von Schmerz, Leid, Gram u. a. ergeben kann.
‘Kummer’
ist das Gegenteil von Freude and Jubel."
72 Wilfred G. E. Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry, JSOTSS 26, 2nd
ed.
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1986), 125.
216
are truly part of a
structured poem then the genders may function to
emphasize the last
line, which is feminine, and works as a sort of "punch-
line" to the
previous lines, which are masculine.
There are two important words common to both of these
proverbs, ble
and hHAm;Wi, as well as wp,n, functioning as a referent to
"self."73 In v. 10 ble
probably carries the
meaning of the inner person, and specifically the part
that "knows,"
hence the translation "mind" would be appropriate here. In
v. 13 ble is the location where feelings are
experienced. There is no
statement in either v.
10 or v. 13 which fixes blame or sin on the suffering
person, which is all
the more amazing when one notes the presence of the
retribution principle
in vv. 11, 14. The emotional suffering portrayed here
is simply part and
parcel of an experience common to almost everyone.
This forces the reader
to recognize that there is a sense of retribution, and
that there are certain
actions that will lead to negative results. However,
there are also certain
problems all people face that have little or nothing to
do with sin or a fault
on the part of the person. They are problems all people
face at one time or
another quite apart from any sin.
4. 15:13
It is difficult to construct a larger
poetic structure for
chapter 15,74
although there are many linking verbal associations and
thematic similarities.
Vv. 8-9 can be taken as a pair, as well as vv. 10-11.
73 The words hrAmA and wp,n, are also
associated in 1 Sam 30:6; 2 Kgs
4:27.
74 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 143-154, esp.
150 argues for a large
poetic
unit which extends from 15:1 to 16:8.
217
As I will show below,
vv. 12-15 are a small unit in an ABA'B' format, then
vv. 16-17 are Tob-Spruche. The links are too complex
to explain in com-
plete detail.75
In the proverbs surrounding v. 13 there are several verbal
links, with a
"vocabulary chain" forming in vv. 12-17 (and v. 11), but not
necessarily having a
similar theme.76 In vv. 11, 13, 14 and 15 we find ble,
while vv. 15, 16 and 17
are further linked by the occurrence of bOF.77
The
comparison made between
the "joyful heart" and the "broken heart" in 15:13
is seen as a contrast
of result. The happy face is antithetic to a crushed
spirit. This may be
seen more emphatically if Garrett's suggestion of a
parallel structure in
15:12-15 is correct:78
A 15:12 :j`leye xlo MymikAHE-lx, Ol HakeOh Cle-bhax<y, xlo
B 15:13
:hxAken; HaUr ble-tbac.;fab;U MyniPA
bFyye HameWA ble
A’ 15:14 :tl,U,xi hf,r;yi Myliysik; ynep;U tfaDA-wq.,bay; NObnA ble
B' 15:15
:dymitA hT,w;mi ble-bOF; MyfirA ynifA
ymey;-lKA
A closer look at vv. 13, 15 shows some parallel ideas:
75 See Whybray, Proverbs, 225-238 for a brief discussion
of the key
word
associations in this chapter. The latter part of chapter 15 contains
many
links to previous sayings in the chapter and is similar in theme to
proverbs
in other parts of the book. For example, vv. 26, 29 have similarities
to
vv. 8-9; and cf. v. 30 with vv. 13, 15. Other examples could be cited as well.
76 Whybray, Proverbs, 225.
77 See Ploger, Spruche Salomos, 182: "Im mittleren
Tell des Kapitels
sind
inhaltliche Zusammenhange kaum erkennbar, doch sind gelegentlich
Stichwort-Verbindungen
festzustellen, so ble in den Versen 13-15 and bOF
in
den Versen 15-17."
78 Garrett, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 153, n. 318.
218
(1)
happy heart//cheerful heart;
(2) cheerful face//continual feast;
(3) heartache//oppression;
(4) crushed spirit//wretchedness.
These parallels occur in a chiasm, which reveals an
intricate
arrangement of
structure and substructure.
In 15:13 we are told that a "happy heart" makes
the face cheerful, but
the results of a broken
heart can be devastating. The NIV translates the
phrase ble-tbac;.fa "heartache."
The root bcf
has a wide range of meaning
but here takes on the
nuance of spiritual or psychical pain,79 although this
root is also associated
with labor (Gen 3:17; 5:29; Isa 5:29; etc.), pain in
childbirth (Gen 3:16,
note the close proximity with "labor" in 3:17), and
physical pain (Eccl
10:9).80 When reference is made to emotional pain the
word is not specific
enough to designate a particular kind of pain. As we
have it in this
proverb, the expression ble-tbac;.fab; can be understood as
virtually any kind of
emotional trauma which leads to a "crushed spirit."
This should not be too
surprising, since one would expect this kind of
generality from a
proverb.
5. 25:20
This proverb is set in a smaller
poetical unit made up of
25:18-20, which is in
turn part of a larger piece comprised of 25:2-27.81
79 C. Meyers, "bcf," TWAT, vol. 6 (1989), 299.
80 In 1 Chr 4:9-10 there is
an extended word-play on this root regard-
ing
the name Jabez, the pain his mother experienced giving him birth and
his
own desire to avoid pain.
81 R. C. Van Leeuwen, Context and Meaning in Proverbs 25-27,
219
Garrett recognizes the
placing of 25:18-20 together but does not treat 25:2-27
as an entire unit.82
Meinhold also groups the chapter under one main
heading,
"Konigsspruche and Arten von Selbstbeherrschung," but sees the
material subdivided
into three smaller units--vv. 2-10; vv. 11-22; vv. 23-28--
with vv. 18-20 being
treated as a subunit of vv. 11-22.83
Difficulties abound in this proverb.84 Driver
almost totally recon-
structs this proverb on
the basis of two occurrences of the root rtn,
the first
meaning like the Arabic
natru(n), "plunging a weapon deeply in," and
natratu(n),
"deep wound;" and the second usage similar to Egyptian ntry,
Akkadian nitiru and Aramaic
the belief that the
problem is a result of vertical haplography. His recon-
struction, based on the
LXX,86 reads:
SBLDS
96 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988). He treats 25:2-27 as a unit (57-86)
and
25:18-20 as a form critical unit of sayings (64), dealing with relations to
one's
neighbor, 25:18-19; and propriety of behavior, 25:20 (85).
82 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 208. He sees the
three proverbs in
25:18-20
referring to people one should avoid: the perjurer, the undepend-
able,
and the tactless.
83 Meinhold, Die Spruche, 2.415ff.
84 McKane (Proverbs, 588) calls the textual
problems associated with
this
saying "formidable." Whybray (Proverbs,
366) says the Hebrew text is
"seriously
corrupt, and no convincing restoration has been proposed."
85 G. R. Driver,
"Problems and Solutions," VT
4 (1954): 241. Natron is
a
very hydrated form of sodium carbonate, which is highly soluble in water,
and
effervesces with cold dilute acid, see Andree Rosenfeld, The Inorganic
Raw Materials of
Antiquity
(New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965), 120.
86 For this proverb LXX has:
!Wsper o@coj e!lkei a]su<mforon
ou!twj
prospeso>n pa<qoj e]n sw<mati kardi<an lupei?,
w!sper
sh>j e]n i[mati<& kai> skw<lhc culo&,
ou!twj
lu<ph a]ndro>j bla<ptei kardi<an.
220
hrq Mvyb dgb hdfm [rtn-lf
Mym]
fr
bl-lf MyriwAb rw rtn-lf CmH
[bl hlHm wyx tgvt Nk Cfl bqrv dgbb ssk]
(Like)
water on natron is (one) removing a garment in cold weather;
(Like)
vinegar on a wound is (one) singing among singers with a heavy
heart;
(Like
a moth in a garment or rot in wood,
so is a man's grief making the heart sick.)
According to Driver the occurrence of the textual confusion
was due
to the positioning of rbn-lf Mym and rtn-lf
CmH
one above the other,
resulting in
haplography.87 This reconstruction also requires Driver to
emend MT's MyriwiBa to MyriwAB;,
"among singers," claiming this change is
"surely required
by the sense; for the point is that one reveller with a heavy
heart spoils good
company."88 While it might be doubted that this inter-
pretation was truly the
original intent of the proverb, I can agree with his
translation of the
preposition in the second line, which will be discussed
more below. Ross
suggests that the first line in v. 20 could be a dittogram
from the previous
proverb (v. 19), since many of the consonants are
similar:89
hrc
Mvyb dgvB HFbm tdfvm v.
19b
hrq
Mvyb dgb hdfm v. 20a
87 Driver, "Problems
and Solutions," 242.
88 Driver, "Problems
and Solutions," 241-242.
89 A. P. Ross,
"Proverbs," in Expositor's
Bible Commentary, ed. F.
Gaebelein, 12 vols.
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991), 5.1084.
221
This
idea, though it preserves the reading of the text as it stands, is
still not very
convincing and the LXX is too far removed to be of help in the
matter, according to
Ross.
It is probably better to stay with the MT and see two
images at work
here, which conjure up
extreme reactions. The first is the removal of
clothing on a cold day,
and the second having to do with vinegar, an acid,
being poured on natron,
which would produce a bubbling reaction. This is
not a pleasant thing,
since it indicates that the specific qualities of the
natron are being
destroyed.90
Aside from textual problems which make this saying
difficult to
interpret, the action
described by the prepositions is not consistent. In the
first action the
preposition B;
actually describes the "when" of the
occurrence rather than
the object receiving the action. Removing the outer
garment is a negative
action which might lead to great discomfort on a cold
day, and Exod 22:26-27
says this garment was to be returned at night if the
garment was taken in
pledge, otherwise the owner would be forced to sleep
without proper cover.
At best this would cause discomfort but it could also
be a factor in the
owner suffering from hypothermia, which can have disas-
trous results, and lead
to death if not remedied. The second action is that of
pouring (though the
verb is lacking) vinegar upon (lfa)
soda, which results
in a destructive
chemical reaction. In the third line the "destructive"
behavior is that of
singing to a heavy or troubled heart (frA
ble).
Though the
action of singing to a
heavy, troubled or grieving heart is consistent with the
90 Kidner, The
Proverbs, 159.
222
use of lfa in the previous line of the saying, the
action itself seems out of
place. Music (or at
least certain types of music) to a person who is dis-
couraged, distressed or
depressed often has a calming, soothing effect. One
can note the incident
of the similar effect David's music had on King Saul (I
Sam 16:23). However, we
are not told what type of music is in view in this
proverb. It seems to go
against consistent usage either way lfa
is taken,
and we as modern
readers may have to settle for ambivalency of meaning.
If it is translated
"to" in consistency with one of the most accepted transla-
tions of this preposition
it then goes against a common notion that music is
soothing. But if the
translation "with" is allowed in order to make the
actions seem more
logical, it strains the parallelism of the previous lines.
While the translation
of lfa will vary from one
context to another,91 it
would not be unusual to
render it "with" in this saying.92 In fact, Driver
has it this way (though
I disagree with his interpretation of the proverb, see
above) as well as
Whybray93 and McKane, who says, "[t]he singing of songs
on a sad heart is...the
same type of expression as marching on an empty
stomach."94
While it is not the most common way to translate this
91 Note the range in
translation of this preposition by P. Jouon, A
Grammar of
Biblical Hebrew,
rev. and tr. T. Muraoka, 2 vols. (
Pontifical
Biblical Institute, 1991), 2.489-490; and cf. B. K. Waltke and M.
O'Connor,
An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax
(
Eisenbrauns,
1990), 216-218.
92 M. J. Dahood,
"Northwest Semitic Philology and Job," in The Bible
in Current
Catholic Thought,
ed. J. L. McKenzie (
Herder,
1962), 69-70, suggests "in the presence of" as the translation of lf
based
on Ugaritic parallels and usage, and the similar occurrence in Job
33:27.
93 Whybray, Proverbs, 367.
94 McKane, Proverbs, 588.
223
preposition, it occurs
often enough to be considered an acceptable
translation.95
Another possibility is that the word frA, which is usually rendered in
this proverb as
grieving, sad, troubled, heavy, or the like, be understood in
one of its most basic
meanings--"evil." This gives the meaning of singing (a
good outward action)
with an evil (a bad inward motive) heart, i. e., a mixed
circumstance, similar
to the action of mixing an acid with bicarbonate of
soda.
Although there is no outside influence mentioned in the
saying that
identifies the reason
for the sadness, there is no ground for applying a strict
doctrine of
retribution. Nothing forces a reader or listener to posit a sin or
wrongdoing bringing
about this sadness or heaviness, if the word frA
is
translated this way.
The situation in this proverb is presented as a "fact of
life," an ordinary,
though unfortunate circumstance, that could happen to
anyone.
Summarizing the findings regarding the term ble we note that all but
one occurrence of the
sayings which use this word in association with
innocent suffering are
found in Solomon B, and that one, 25:20, is in
Solomon C. Four of the
seven proverbs are antithetic (12:25; 13:12; 15:13;
17:22), while 14:10 and
25:20 are synthetic and 14:13 is synonymous. Three
of the seven use either
HaUr or wp,n,; as a parallel or contrasting term
(14:10;
95 See Gen 32:12; Exod
12:8, 9; 23:18; 34:25:, 35:22; Lev 2:2; 3:4; 4:11;
19:26;
Num 9:11; Deut 16:3; 22:6; 1 Sam 14:32, 33; 1 Kgs 15:20; Jer 3:18; Ezek
33:25;
Hos 10:14; Mic 5:2; Job 38:32; 1 Chr 7:4; BDB, 755; HAL, vol. 3 (1983),
782.
224
15:13; 17:22), while
the dominant expression in this group seems to be
associated with the
root HmW, which appears in five
of the seven (12:25;
14:10; 14:13; 15:13;
17:22).
B. Spirit (HaUr)
Under this heading there are four sayings, two of
which (15:13;
17:22) have already
been examined in some detail in the previous section.
The other two are 15:4
and 18:14. In this section the discussion will be
limited to issues
surrounding HaUr.
1. 15:4
As noted above in discussions regarding
Prov 15,
there is no clear
poetic structure, but seemingly a series of verbal links and
thematic ties which are
found throughout this chapter. Since these
matters have been dealt
with previously I will limit the discussion to this
saying:
:HaUrB; rb,w,
h.BA Jl,s,v; Myyi.Ha Cfe NOwlA xPer;ma
The point of this proverb is a comparison of the results of
words on
someone else's life,
whether for good or bad. The effect of these words is
communicated by the use
of "tongue" to refer to words, speech, etc. This
result is contrasted by
calling the positive result a "tree of life"96 and the
negative result is
described as a "crushed spirit." Though the English
translations make this
proverb sound like the idea of the crushed spirit is
96 For more on the
expression "tree of life" see the discussion under
13:12 above.
225
identical to the
expression found in 15:13; 17:22 and 18:14 the wording here
is actually quite
different. In these proverbs crushed spirit is hxAken;
HaUr
a
feminine noun followed
by a feminine adjective, whereas the phrase in 15:4,
HaUrB;
rb,w,
is a verbal noun followed by a preposition with a feminine noun.
So literally we could
translate this "crushed in spirit." This differs very
little from saying that
someone has a crushed spirit, and to draw a distinc-
tion in meaning here is
to split linguistic hairs.
2. 15:13
Matters of poetic structure and
vocabulary links have
been discussed at
length above and need not be repeated here.
The association of the root xkn
with HaUr occurs only three
times in the
OT, and all three are
in the book of Proverbs.97 The similar root hkn occurs
much more frequently
and may have a physical meaning ("to strike, hit,
beat, slay") and a
related noun form (hKAma)
means "plague" or "affliction"
(Num 11:33; 1 Sam 4:8;
etc.). There is also an occurrence in Ps 102:5[4]
which uses hkn to describe emotional distress:
yBli
wbay.va bW,fekA-hKAUh
Smitten like grass and withered is my heart.98
The conclusion that can be drawn from the usage of the
roots xkn and
hkn
is
that though one might function primarily in the domain of the
physical both can be
found used to refer to emotion or emotional states.
97 See also 17:22 and
18:14, which will be discussed below.
98 NIV has "My heart is blighted and
withered like grass."
226
The
parallel of hxAken; HaUr
in 15:13 is MyfirA
15:15. The similar ex-
pression HaUrB; rb,w, in 15:4 is also noted. Concerning
the word frA,
the root
is often set in
contrast to :In, showing these two words to be corresponding
opposites,99
and this is the case in 15:15, where NIV translates it
"wretched."100
It is also possible that the adjective MyfirA
was intended to
call forth subtle hints
of the secondary meaning of ffr,
which is "to
shatter," making
itself a closer parallel to hxAken;
in 15:13 and rb,w,
in 15:4.101
3. 17:22
This antithetical saying has been
discussed above in
relation to the heart,
but the purpose here is to examine the results of a
crushed spirit. The
expression hxAken; HaUr
is again the focus and the cause
of the psychosomatic
expression Mr,GA-wB,yaT;,
"dries up the bones."
This expression is contrasted with "good
medicine" in the first line.
The word hhAGe, translated "medicine," is
based on a root whose Aramaic
usage includes "to
be set free from guilt, pain or disease" (cf. Hos 5:13).102
Whybray observes that
this word occurs only here in the OT and the
meaning is uncertain.103
Driver takes it to be related to the Arabic jihatu,
99 C. Dohmen, "ffr," TWAT, vol. 7 (1993), 586. T'he same is
true
whether
it occurs as a verb, a noun, or an adjective.
100 This word has a wide
range of meanings, but the most common
way
to render it seems to be "evil," "bad," or the like, cf.
Ploger (Spruche
Salomos, 177) and
Meinhold (Die Spruche, 1.253) who
have bose; NASV
has
"bad"; RSV "evil"; NRSV "hard."
101 This observation is
made by G. H. Livingston, "ffarA," TWOT, 2.856-
857.
102 E. B. Smick, "hhAGA," TWOT, 1.152.
103 Whybray, Proverbs, 261.
227
"face" (cf.
Prov 15:13),104 but it is probably better to see it as a rare word
meaning
"healing" or "health."105
In this saying we are told that a crushed spirit
"dries up the bones."
This is likely an
observation on the effect of the psychological state on one's
physical health, a fact
now recognized by the medical field.106 The expres-
sion used here is
unique to the OT and carries with it a negative connota-
tion. Though a
different word for "bone" is used, this proverb can be
compared with the
similar idea found in Ezek 37:11:
hn.ehi hmA.he
lxerAW;yi tyBe-lKA hl,.xehA tOmcAfEhA MdAxA-NB, ylaxe rm,xoyo.va
:UnlA Unr;zag;ni UntevAq;ti hdAb;xAv; UnyteOmc;fa Uwb;yA
Myrim;xo
Both Mr,G,
and Mc,f, are used as
affective organs.107 In both cases,
regardless of whether
the word is Mr,G,
or Mc,f,, the action of
drying is seen in
a negave way. The image
lying behind this is a human skeleton bleaching
in a hot, arid desert.
This seems very likely in Ezek 37:11 and I suggest it
here also as an image
behind Prov 17:22. This stark physical image of the
"long dead"
would be a grim reminder of what emotional stress could do to
104 G. R. Driver,
"L'interpretation du texte masoretique a la lumiere
de
la lexicographie hebraique," Ephemerides
Theologicae Lovanienses 26
(1950):
344.
105 HAL, vol. 1 (1967), 174, has Heilung.
In keeping with McKane's
observation
that this is a statement regarding psychosomatic relations
(Proverbs, 506), it can be noted that
Ploger (Spruche Salomos, 206) and
Meinhold
(Die Spruche, 2.294) both translate
this word as Wohlbefinden.
106 Note the comments of
Hubbard, Proverbs, 207, in this regard.
107 Of the two Mcf is found more
often, see 15:30, where it parallels bl
(cf.
Isa 66:14; Jer 20:9; 23:9; Ps 22:15[14]); and 16:24 where it parallels wpn
(cf.
Ps 35:9-10). As a figure for strength Gen 49:14 has Mrg, cf. Prov
25:15.
228
a person. The pressures
of everyday living can sometimes be such a heavy
drain on a person's
inner strength that it feels like inner vitality is gone, or
the "life
juices" have simply dried up, leaving nothing but a "skeleton"
of a
person in its place.
This proverb expresses an extreme, since bones are
seemingly the most
durable part of a person.
4. 18:14
There are no poetic structures obvious
in chapter 18.
The discussion of this
saying will relate to similar vocabulary in 15:13 and
17:22.
:hn.Ax,W.Ayi ymi
hxAken; HaUrv; UhleHEma lKel;kay; wyxi-HaUr
The similarities to 15:13 and 17:22 in terms of a common
phrase and
a contrast to a
cheerful or a happy heart have been noted above. In each
case the hxAkeen; HaUr is a sad or
unfortunate case. But in the first two pro-
verbs the hxAken; HaUr is contrasted to a pleasant or
happy situation whereas
the comparison in 18:14
seems to be between two cases of adversity, one
being a physical
illness, the other some type of emotional distress. The
former situation is
presented as endurable, the latter is less endurable.
Complicating the
interpretation is the occurrence of HaUr
in both halves of
the saying. Though hlAHEma can be translated in a variety of
ways it usually
has to do with physical
injuries or disease. This proverb tells us that
situations or
circumstances arise in which a person may endure and
survive a pathological
illness only to be defeated by a psychological
condition. Whether the
psychological condition results from the illness or
229
injury, or whether it
is a separate and unrelated problem is not the issue.
If we understand the
"crushed spirit" as depression, or some similar
clinical problem, then
it can be observed that this may refer to what we
would now call the
"will to live," which is sometimes a strong factor in the
body's recovery
process. It is often missing in those suffering from
depression.
Each of the four proverbs examined in this category is
antithetic, all
four occur in Solomon
B, and all four describe and contrast the results of a
crushed spirit,
regardless of whether the qualifying word used is rb,w, (15:4)
or hxAken; (15:13; 17:22; 18:14). In each
case an anthropological team is used
in the parallel
contruction to contrast with the crushed spirit. In 15:4 it is
tongue (NOwlA); in 15:13 heart (ble); in 17:22 heart (ble) and bone (Mr,G,); and in
18:14 the contrast is
made between two different types of strain or adversity
that may be inflicted
on the HaUr.
C. Soul (wp,n,)
I recognize that wp,n,
does
not carry the typical meaning which
many modern day English
speakers associate with it, and therefore it is a
misnomer to call this
section "Soul," but in order to remain consistent with
previous reference and
usage as well as easy identification this one-word
translation has been
retained. It is probably more accurate in this case to
translate the word as “person.”
Finding proverbs which associate wp,n, with innocent suffering was
much more difficult
than locating ones using ble
or HaUr. This may be due
to the broader variety
of translation possibilities involved with wp,n,.
230
1.
14:10
This proverb is discussed in a previous section
(II.A.3.)
and need not be
discussed again.
2. 28:17
For a discussion of the poetic structure of Prov
28 see the
previous chapter,
III.B.1.d. and III.B.4. The proverb in 28:17 is part of an
unconnected series
between two larger sections composed of 28:1-11 and
28:19-27.108
It seems to contain no formal
attachments or associations with
either of the two
larger pieces in the chapter; thus we will approach it as an
individual saying:
:Ob-Ukm;t;yi
lxa sUnyA rOB-dfa wp,nA-MdaB; qwufA MdAxA
This proverb has both a theological and social sense.
Theologically,
the murderer may be
oppressed (qwufA)
by a guilty conscience, and no one
should attempt to make
him feel better about his deed, or socially, the courts
should punish murderers
to the greatest extent allowed.109 NIV interprets
the passive participle qwufA to refer to the action of a guilty
conscience, a
meaning not usually
associated with this root.110 The
second part of 'the
proverb literally says
"as far as the pit he will (or ‘let him’) flee," and is
108 I do not see a tight
poetic structure in 28:19-27 as I did in 28:1-11.
In
28:19-27 there are many verbal links but I have been unable to discern a
clear
structure.
109 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 225.
110 Note also RSV and the
comment of Whybray, Proverbs, 394.
231
taken by NIV to be a
reference to the grave, apparently as a term similar in
usage to lOxw;. The last part is a social injunction
against rendering aid or
assistance to those who
are attempting to escape justice. Whybray observes
that the verb in the
last line is ambiguous and can also be translated "to
seize."111
This may be true but would make a nonsense statement out of the
proverb, since it would
then be encouraging the opposite action.
The use of wp,n,
in this saying is unusual in that it does not refer to the
inner person,
qualities, seat of emotion or intellect, as is so common with
ble
or HaUr. Here wp,n,
refers to a victim of a crime, specifically murder. RSV
reflects this clearly:
"If a man is burdened by the blood of another..." So
wp,n,
functions as a reference to another person in this proverb. This is
especially interesting
and important since modern readers, particularly
those who speak
English, associate "soul," one of the more common trans-
lations for wp,n,, with the immaterial part of humans,
yet here it stands for a
person, and specifically,
a dead body. This will also be shown in the next
proverb.
3. 29:10
There is virtually no agreement on the structure
of Prov
29. Whybray sees very
little structure for the entire chapter, with the
possible exceptions of
vv. 12-14 and vv. 25-26, which use references to
Yahweh occurring in
close proximity to those mentioning kings or
rulers.112
By far the largest structural development is seen by Meinhold,
who believes 29:1-15
stands as a piece, with three subdivisions: vv. 1-7, vv.
111 Whybray, Proverbs, 394.
112 Whybray, Proverbs,
397-398.
232
8-10, and vv. 11-15.113
Garrett treats the chapter in a more piecemeal
fashion and suggests
vv. 8-11 as a section, with v. 7 serving as a possible
heading for vv. 8-11.114
If Garrett's structure is accepted it presents a unity of
text indicated
by the presence of
catchwords in a chiastic sequence. The text can be
structured in an ABAB'
format:
A 29:8 :JxA UbywiyA
MymikAHEva hyAr;qi UHypiyA NOclA ywen;xa
B 29:9 :
A' 29:10 :Owp;na
Uwq;bay; MyriwAyvi MtA-Uxn;W;yi MymidA ywen;xa
B' 29:11 :hn.AH,B;way; rOHxAB; MkAHAv; lysik; xyciOy OHUr-lKA
In vv. 8, 10 there are the plural constructs NOclA ywen;xa and MymidA ywen;xa
as close parallels,
straddling a singular construct, MkAHA-wyxi
in v. 9.
Garret observes the
tight parallel structure of vv. 8, 10 with both verses
having an evil subject
+ imperfect verb + object + conjunction + good subject
+ imperfect verb +
object. The elements of the chiasms in vv. 9, 11 are
composed of MkAHA and lyvix<
(v. 9) to MkAHA and
lysiK; (v. 11).115
Similar to 28:17, the proverb in 29:10 contains the use of
"blood" (MymiDA)
113 Meinhold, Die Spruche, 2.481. Vv. 8-10 are
structured around the
Stichwort "Mann." He treats
29:16 as a stand-alone proverb and 29:17-26 as
a
unit.
114 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 229. He sees the
chapter as a
series
of small groupings rather than the larger units suggested by
Meinhold.
115 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 230, n. 78.
233
to refer to murder, MDA being used in 28:17 and the plural
here.116 The
singular form is also
used in Prov 1:11 and 6:17 to refer to the crime of
murder, although there
is little distinction to be drawn between the use of
the singular as opposed
to the plural for this word in legal texts.117
The second line of 29:10 is problematic. Some have observed
the
difficulty of the line
if it is translated "and the upright seek his life." The
expression which causes
the problem is Owp;na Uwq;bay;,
which normally
denotes an intention to
kill. For some this presents the unthinkable possi-
bility that the MyriwAy;
would be involved in criminal activity of this type.118
This difficulty has
also led to a suggestion of Urq;bay;
(cf. Ezek 34:11) in place
of Uwq;bay; resulting in the sense that the
upright will place a high value on
the life of the MtA.119 G. R. Driver translates
this line "The upright amply
esteem his life,"
associating Uwq;bay;
with the Akkadian baqasu, which
means "to
enlarge."120 Driver believed this root in the pi'el could mean
"to
value, esteem,"
but Whybray is unsure of this and concludes that no satis-
factory solution has
been found.121
116 The two forms are used
indiscriminately, see B. Kedar-Kopfstein,
"MDA," TWAT, vol. 2 (1977), 250.
117 For a discussion of MDA
in
legal and ethical contexts see Kedar-
Kopfstein,
“MD,”
256-259.
118 This apparently has led
to the emendation of MyrwAyvi to MyfiwAr;U in
the
BHS apparatus, cf. Whybray, Proverbs,
400 and RSV.
119 C. H. Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the
Book of
Proverbs, ICC (New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1899), 510.
120 G. R. Driver, review of
The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental
Institute of the
1965
in JSS 12 (1967): 108.
121 Whybray, Proverbs, 401.
234
This problem can be
solved by seeing the chiastic arrangement of the
proverb, with the MymidA ywen;xa in the first line
parallel to the pronoun in
Uwq;bay;
in
the second. The problem is based on the assumption that the one
whose life is being
sought is the MtA and
it is the "upright one" who is doing
this. But the phrase
can be translated "but the upright seek his life," refer-
ring to the wicked,
using Owp;na in the
distributive sense, in reference to the
MymidA
ywen;xa.122
This allows MtA
to be parallel with MyriwAy;
and the action of
hating in the first
line parallel to pursuing with lethal intent in the second
line. Reading the
proverb in this way gives a smooth parallel structure and
negates the need for
emendation, since the roots Mmt
and rwy occur as
synonymous word pairs
quite frequently in poetry, see Ps 37:37; Job 1:1, 8;
2:3; Prov 2:21; 11:3,
5; etc.; and it is common in poetry to have parallel
members differ in
gender or number.123
Each of the three proverbs that are tied to innocent
suffering and use
wp,n,
do so from the standpoint of reference to person, whether to the self (as
in 14:10) or to another
(as in the murder victim in 28:17 and 29:10). In no
instance does wp,n, mean "soul" in the sense of
inner qualities, character,
etc., as is the case
with ble and HaUr.
All three of these sayings occur in the Solomonic collections,
one in
Solomon B (14:10), the
others in Solomon C (28:17; 29:10). In one of these,
28:17, there is a
unique injunction against aiding a fugitive from justice,
which combines a saying
with a prohibition.
122 Garrett, Proverbs, 230,
n. 79.
123 For examples of poetic
parallels with mixed gender and/or num-
ber Geller, Parallelism in Early Biblical Poetry,
24.
235
D. Conclusion
The previous examination of the three
anthropological terms
ble,
HaUr and wp,n, shows them to be much broader terms
than one might
initially expect. And
the fact that these terms are often used together in
poetic parallelism
shows that they were seen as similar ideas as well.
This study of Hebrew
psychological terms was much more difficult to
carry out than other
parts of this study. Part of the difficulty is the
ambiguity of the
terminology.
Another difficulty, along with the intended ambiguity of
the terms, is
the fact that emotion,
like pain is subjective and therefore difficult to gauge
or measure on any kind
of objective scale. Because of this subjectivity any
evaluation of
"emotional suffering" is a difficult task. Each person has
their own "pain
threshold" for physical trauma and the same is true of
emotional distress.
What one person finds completely debilitating may be
only a minor nuisance
for another.
But in the final analysis it is important for this study to
point out the
fact that the Hebrew
sages were very much aware of emotional suffering by
innocent people. There
were no hard and fast rules which said that the
righteous always
prospered and the wicked always
suffered, whether it
was physical, emotional
or spiritual. The seemingly superficial views of
life portrayed in some
of the individual proverbs where there are only two
choices or two results
is due more to the poetical structure of the sayings
than a view of life
held by the sages which was simplistic and
unrealistically naive.
The placement of some of the proverbs in larger
236
poetic structures
allowed a broader context of interpretation. This was
noted in many of the
examples in this study, and the placement of the
concept of innocent
suffering in the context of the covenant allowed a
theological
interpretation to take place where previous studies only allowed
a secular view.
The harsh view of retribution was a distinction for the
Meso-
potamians with their
mechanical view of the world, and also for the
Egyptians who. had a
static view of the universe with ma’at
governing the
scales of reward and
punishment. The ancient Hebrews, by recognizing
the possibility of an
innocent sufferer, showed that they did not have a view
of life that demanded
the exercise of blind equitable retribution.
The proverbs examined in this chapter have shown that those
who
were behind the wisdom
movement in ancient
general stress of
everyday living. In a culture where subsistence living is
the norm this type of
outlook should not be seen as unusual. Just like daily
setbacks may occur in
agricultural pursuits, one could also expect
emotional setbacks as
well. It was simply a part of life. The expected
rewards or results of
hard work were sometimes unfortunately delayed or
denied due to
unforeseen circumstances, or in some cases, the malign
behavior of those who
were living outside the standards of the community.
In these cases there is
no blame attached to the person who has suffered
these setbacks.
237
CHAPTER
FIVE
INNOCENT
SUFFERING DUE TO THE WORDS AND DEEDS OF
OTHERS
Introduction
The title for this chapter may be too general, yet in some
ways this
chapter is something of
a "catch-all." It is the place where I must assess
the proverbs which do
not fit under any clear category, especially after the
proverbs dealing with
the legal system are discussed.
This chapter will look at the judicial process in the ANE
and in
will briefly examine
the legal process at work, taking examples from the OT
to show how various
legal situations were handled and what sort of steps
were taken to see that
justice was served.
Then the book of Proverbs will be combed for references to
the legal
process or comments
regarding the justice system. Once this has been
accomplished I will
analyze the sayings which specifically address the
matter of innocent
suffering involving the legal process.
The last two major sections of the chapter will examine
texts which
deal with the pain of
the innocent brought on by damaging words and
harmful actions.
I.
The Legal System
When we look at the administration of justice and the legal
system of
ancient
238
be understood in the
modern sense. There was no appointed session of the
court, and no lawyers functioning
as prosecuting attorneys or defense
attorneys in a
professional sense. These came into operation only when a
case was presented and
only with a judge (or judges) and witnesses.l The
same applies to legal
terminology. Our modern terms rarely carry the
same meaning when used
in the 0T.2 An example of this is the almost
uniform translation of Fpewo as "judge" because it often
misleads or conceals
other meanings which
elucidate the function of the Fpewo
in Israel.3
A. Judicial Process in the Ancient
Near East
Since Israelite practices were essentially based
on the same or
similar principles as
those of neighboring cultures, especially those of
cussion will be very limited
here and serves only to give the background for
the sake of further
discussion rather than detailed specifics.
According to Boecker the process of law derived from
arbitration.4
Since there was no
formal judicial apparatus the initiative to begin legal
proceedings lay with
the concerned parties. There was no differentiation
between civil offenses
and criminal ones, nor was there an organized police
force.
Before a case could be dealt with, the opponent was
summoned
1 F. C. Fensham,
"Courts, Judicial," ISBE,
vol. 1 (1979), 788-789.
2 H. J. Boecker, Law and the Administration of Justice in the
Old
Testament and
the Ancient East,
tr. J. Moiser (
1980),
18.
3 T. L. J. Mafico,
"Judge, Judging," ABD,
3.1104-1105.
4 Boecker, Law, 21.
239
through a whole series
of protocols, the summons consisting of a citation of
the plaintiff given
before witnesses and a reply by the defendant. The
defendant was required
to respond and could possibly do so in a way that
satisfied the
plaintiff's claim, thus avoiding trial. If the summons was
disobeyed the person
risked losing the ensuing lawsuit by default.
The judge then took his seat, once the parties had been
assembled,
evidently standing
before the judge. Although written documents were
often used as evidence,
verbal testimony was the primary means of present-
ing one's side of the
case.5 The testimony of witnesses was confirmed
with an oath, sometimes
with a single witness accepted as sufficient.
If there was enough evidence to allow a verdict the
judge(s) pro-
nounced one and passed
sentence. Insofar as the sentence was considered
binding, it drew the
case to a close. However, it had to be accepted by both
parties. An agreement
or reconciliation was possible at any stage in the
trial.6 If a party disagreed with a verdict there was
no appeal to a higher
authority, although a
case might be accepted again and there could be a
second trial over the
same charge or charges.
The so-called "codes" of law used in the ANE were
not intended to be
complete treatments of
all phases of life, so in this sense they should not be
referred to as codes
unless their non-comprehensive nature is realized.7
For example, the Code of Hammurapi has been divided into
282 para-
5 It is possible that a
high illiteracy rate was a factor in this, since a
written
document was virtually useless if no one, or very few individuals
involved,
could read it.
6 For more on this whole
process, see Boecker, Law, 22-24.
7 Samuel Greengus, "Law," ABD, 4.243; cf. Boecker, Law, 76.
240
graphs with no apparent
organization or attempt at complete treatment of
subjects at hand.8
It has been suggested that the Code of
Hammurapi
refers to cases that he
himself judged.9 If this is true it would help ex-
plain the apparent lack
of organization. Boecker, however, says, "The order
must have been as
understandable and practical to the contemporary user
as it is objectionable
and irrational to the modern jurist."10
But this still does not solve the problem of the
non-comprehensive
nature of the ancient
lists of laws. Greengus suggests that the validity of
the Babylonian laws was
not dependent upon their being written down,
since the art of
writing was not necessarily an inherent part of the legal
process.11
Only the more complicated, potentially contestable situations
generated a written
law. Examples of those kinds of situations might be
real estate sales and
manumission. Other types of legal proceedings
apparently needed no
documentation. Legal documents and contracts in
the Sumerian,
Babylonian and Assyrian languages have been recovered
from a wide
geographical and chronological span. These business con-
tracts were often
sealed in a clay "envelope," which had all or part of the
text of the contract on
the outer shell. If it was necessary to read this docu-
ment at a later date
the envelope had to be shattered to gain access to the
original text. Although
there was a great deal of local differentiation there
were widely established
formulae for the various types of documents.12
8 Boecker, Law, 79.
9 R. K. Harrison, "Law
in the OT," ISBE, vol. 3 (1986),
78.
10 Boecker, Law, 80.
11 Greengus,
"Law," 243.
12 Wolfram von Soden, The Ancient Orient: An Introduction to the
241
In
terms of organization, three types of legal proceedings were
distinguished,
depending on whether it was administered by (1) the king,
(2) the temple priest,
or (3) the elders.13 Obviously the most important of
these was the king, who
was often seen as the lawgiver and judge.14
However, the task of
the administration of justice was not the king's alone.
Other officials were appointed
to act as judges by authority of the king, who
usually got his
authority from a deity. An example of this was Hammu-
rapi, who got the right
to judge from Shamash, the god associated with
justice.15
It is unknown whether judges received technical training in
legal
matters. There are no
texts which tell how they were prepared for the
responsibilities of
their profession following their basic education as
scribes.16
It seems likely that a scribe would have to participate in the
legal process for an
extended period under the tutelage of a more
experienced judge
before being qualified to function as a judge.17 All we
can deduce is that the
scribe is the official who is responsible for preparing
the documents for the
case and directing the process since the scribe is
often listed
immediately following the citation of witnesses. There is no
Study of the
Ancient Near East,
tr. D. Schley (
1994),
139.
13 Boecker, Law, 25-26.
14 Greengus,
"Law," 244.
15 Fenshar, "Courts,
Judicial," 789; cf. ANET, 164.
16 Von Soden, Ancient
Orient, 141.
17 This is the view of von
Soden (Ancient Orient, 141) but there is no
way
to prove it from the primary sources, since von Soden admits there are
no texts informing us
of judicial training.
242
indication that there
was any person who functioned in the role of
attorney.18
The temple priests held varying levels of importance at
different
stages. In the
neo-Sumerian period there is virtually no evidence for
priestly involvement.19
But as the temple grew in importance, so did its
influence on the legal
system. This might have been because of the promi-
nent role oaths played
in justice and that an oath could only be made in the
temple area.20
The oath was seen as a critical part of the legal proceeding
in that the one giving
testimony was taking a curse on himself if the testi-
mony proved to be
false. This was generally done before the symbol of a
deity, and a lie under
oath became an insult to the deity.11 This is an
important point to
remember because there was no law in the strictly secu-
lar sense. Since the
gods were responsible for the protection of law and
justice as administered
by the king and his appointees, all law was reli-
gious law.12
The third type of legal proceeding was handled by elders.
This
probably went back
further than the king, chronologically speaking. A
court of elders was
most likely to be found dispensing arbitration and
justice in the smaller
towns and villages. According to Boecker, it is diffi-
cult to assess the
relationship between royal justice and that of the elders
18 Von Soden, Ancient Orient, 144.
19 Boecker (Law, 25) suggests this might be due to
the monarchy
tolerating
no competition.
20 Boecker, Law, 25-26.
21 Von Soden, Ancient Orient, 143.
22 Von Soden, Ancient Orient, 131.
243
since the source
material is so meager.23 It is not known if the king
sanctioned these legal
decisions or not. The assumption is that the elders
handled minor affairs,
while the more important cases were dealt with by
the king.24
B. Judicial Process in Ancient
When discussing judicial process in ancient
tant to recognize the
differences between historical eras in the way justice
was dispensed. There
was the semi-nomadic era with Moses as leader, the
period of the judges,
and then later, the monarchy. In each era there were
different institutions
for enforcing justice or arbitrating disagreements.
The purpose here is not
to discuss these institutions in detail, but to simply
call attention to them.
The formal basis of Hebrew law was the covenant at Sinai.25
Since
Israelite law was
covenant law the ultimate authority was seen as coming
from God.26
In this respect Israelite society was very different from neigh-
boring societies.
Although other ANE cultures saw their laws as divinely
given (see above), no
other nation was in covenant with a deity in quite the
same way. This placed
the laws, the patterns of behavior, what was
acceptable treatment of
fellow human beings, and the like, in a different
frame of reference from
the surrounding cultures.27
23 Boecker, Law, 26.
24 Exod 18:13-26 may
provide an analogy for this situation. Moses
appointed
a body of judges to handle minor disputes.
25 Harrison,
"Law," 80.
26 Greengus,
"Law," 244.
27 For discussion of the
antiquity of the covenant concept in
chapter two. For a
comparison of the way justice was viewed in
244
In
early
leader and judge, with
a great number of minor judges or elders working
under him (Exod
18:13-26). Upon entering the land and following the con-
quest the same
procedure was followed, more or less, with the judges act-
ing as military and
political leaders who often gave legal decisions. Some
were local, others may
have had more widespread influence but none of the
judges had the
prominence and authority Moses had exerted.
When the monarchy was established the king became the
judge, with
the elders or priests
in the small towns and villages functioning as minor
judges. Although the
situation under Saul was somewhat less organized, 1
Chron 26:29-32 says
David appointed judges from among the Levites.
Apparently a need to
reorganize was recognized by Jehoshaphat, whose
name means "Yahweh
judges," with minor offenses being handled by the
local elders or priests
and the major ones referred to the king. This policy
seems to have been
carried on down to the exile.28 During the exile the
priests as well as the
elders seemed to have acted as judges in the absence
of a ruler (cf. Ezek
44:23-24). In the post-exilic community the appointed
governor was
responsible for justice, along with the elders.
C. The Legal Process at Work
The process the ancient Israelites might have
gone through in
dealing with a legal
dispute must remain hypothetical. The following steps
Mesopotamia,
see M. Weinfeld, Social Justice in
Ancient
Ancient Near
East
(Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1995), though Weinfeld's
treatment
rarely mentions the covenant basis for the application of justice.
28 Fensham, "Courts, Judicial," 789.
245
might have been typical
of the procedure in a small town or village: (1)
confrontation, (2)
arbitration, (3) consultation, (4) announcement of verdict,
(5) sentence, and (6)
punishment.29 However, it must be emphasized that
no complete court
records exist and all reconstructions are tentative.
D. Proverbs and Legal Action
In reading through the book of Proverbs one can
note the large
number of references to
the legal system or the judicial process. These
references are found in
every collection within the book except chapter 30,
the Sayings of Agur.
Because of the large number of proverbs which refer to this
subject,
and their inclusion in
almost all sections within the book, an analysis of the
topic by section would
be too fragmented and repetitious. In view of this
difficulty I will
briefly attempt to list the major themes relating to justice
and the legal system,
with no intent to be exhaustive or to exegete each
proverb.
1. False Witness/False Accusation
The most numerous category of proverbs dealing
with
the legal process are
observations regarding giving false witness and false
accusations.
Those which mention the false witness are: 6:19; 12:17;
14:5, 25; 19:5,
29 This is based on the
hypothetical case used to illustrate the process
in
D. A. McKenzie, "Judicial Procedure at the Town Gate," VT 14 (1964):
100-104.
For the sake of brevity I have omitted Hebrew terminology and OT
references.
These may be seen in McKenzie's article. This type of recon-
struction
must remain hypothetical since there were no court steno-
graphers and we have no
record of court proceedings.
246
9, 28; 21:28; 25:18.
These proverbs tend to be statements saying what the
false witness does or
what will happen to someone who gives false witness.
None of these proverbs
were formulated as prohibitions, i. e., "do not..."
although there is
certainly a commandment in the decalogue (Exod 20:16)
that is intended this
way, even though it is worded with the much stronger
xl
plus imperfect.
Other proverbs deal with false accusations: 3:30; 24:28;
25:7b-8, 9-10.
These are prohibitions,
some with the typical lx
plus jussive or imperfect
followed by a motive
clause, and differ from the previous type not only in
grammar but also in
audience. These prohibitions are directed against
those who might bring
about legal action which harms the innocent. The
proverbs that make
observations regarding false witnesses are directed
toward those called by
a litigant to testify before the judge(s). So we see in
the collections of
Proverbs advice given regarding both instigating lawsuits
as well as being called
upon to testify in them.
2. Reversal of Justice
In Solomon B
(10:1-22:16) there are proverbs that refer to
the reversal of justice
due to dishonest judges, who are called "abomina-
tion" (17:15), and
bribes, which may be paid to a witness or a judge (17:26).
The reversal of justice
is called bOF-xl
in 17:26 where the innocent are
punished. Another bOF-xl statement speaks of showing partiality
to the
wicked and depriving
the innocent of justice. In 13:23 an unnamed agent
causes a poor man to
lose the crop he had worked for. All three of these
proverbs will be
addressed in more detail below.
247
The
only saying outside the Solomonic collections dealing with the
reversal of justice is
in the Further Sayings of the Wise in 24:23b-25, which
warns judges not to
pervert justice, with the reason given that one who does
this will be cursed and
denounced. Positive results are also given to show
the rewards of honesty
in judging.
3. Value of the Legal Process
Chapter 21 of Proverbs (Solomon B) has three
proverbs
which reflect the value
and positive results of the legal system in society. In
21:3 we are told that
justice is more acceptable than sacrifice, whereas in
21:11 the value of
justice is seen when a mocker (Cle)
is punished (wnAf;
[Ba], cf.
17:26). Here justice is
portrayed as instructional. When the mocker is
punished the simple (ytiP,) gain wisdom. The brevity of this
proverb makes
it difficult to
determine whether the simple is equated with the mocker, or
is a bystander who
learns by seeing what happens to the mocker. Another
positive result of the
legal system functioning properly is that it brings joy to
the righteous but
terror to those who do evil (21:15), presumably working as
a deterrent to crime.
Other proverbs which speak of the value of the judicial
process are
16:8 and 17:10. In 16:8
a sage observes in a Nmi...bOF statement that a "little
with righteousness is
better than wealth gained by injustice." In a similar
fashion to 21:11, in
17:10 a sage compares the value of punishment meted
out by the courts
(here, flogging a fool) to that of a rebuke to a discerning
person. The
"hundred lashes" was more than double the prescribed num-
ber of forty (Deut
25:2-3) and probably meant to communicate an unlimited
248
number, i. e., the fool
(lysiK;) never learns,
no matter how much punish-
ment is given.
Although the value and results of the judicial process were
generally
seen as positive there
is also a warning in 29:9 (Solomon C) that entering
litigation with a fool
(lyvix<) could cause an
uproar and disrupt society.
4. Royal Justice
In Solomon B there are three proverbs which speak
of
the king's role as one
who enforces justice.30 The proverb in 16:10 is strik-
ing for its description
of a king's word as an oracle. Normally, "oracle"
(Ms,q,) is used to refer to divination of
pagans and false prophets, but here it
speaks metaphysically
of the king's deep, mysterious wisdom, cf. 2 Sam
14:17, 20.31
There is a strong Egyptian parallel to
16:12 if one is willing to
see ma'at as a parallel to hqAdAc;.32 But I believe
equating ma'at with
hqAdAc;
in a royal context fails to take into account the large differences be-
tween the office of
king in
30 For a detailed
discussion of the king's role in enforcing justice see
Boecker,
Law, 40-49; Weinfeld, Social Justice, 45-56.
31 Duane A. Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs,
NAC vol.
14
(Nashville: Broadman, 1993), 156. R. N. Whybray, Wealth and Poverty in
the Book of
Proverbs,
JSOTSS 99 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990), 51, n. 1,
points
out its usual association with pagan divination.
32 The possibility of an
Egyptian parallel is discussed by J. A. Cren-
shaw
in "The Sage in Proverbs," in The
Sage in
Near East, ed. J. G.
Gammie and L. G. Perdue (
brauns,
1990), 214. In my opinion it is problematic to equate ma'at with
hqdc, see chapter two above.
33 See the discussion of
the roles of kingship in these two countries in
H.
A. Frankfort, Kingship and the Gods (
Press, 1948; repr.
249
ignores the nature of ma’at, which simply could not and did
not exist in a
Hebrew context.34
Another proverb along similar lines as 16:12 is found in
20:8. This
"idealized"35
view of royal authority was not always reflected by Israelite or
Judahite kings. The
need for moral insight in governing and dispensing
justice was an acute
one, just as it is today.
The next two proverbs are found in Solomon C, the
collection com-
piled by the scribes of
King Hezekiah (25:1-29:27). In 29:4 and 29:14, critical
attitudes36
toward the monarchy are expressed regarding matters of
security and stability.
A nation's stability is based on the king's enforce-
ment of justice,37
according to 29:4, whereas 29:14 says a king's throne will
be secure if he judges
the poor fairly. One of the chief duties of a king was to
dispense equity and
guard the rights of every individual. This was
especially needful in
the case of the poor who have no strong political base of
support and are the
most readily taken advantage of.
In 31:8, 9 the Savings of Lemuel, there is further
confirmation of the
royal responsibility
for the poor. These admonitions may be another indica-
tion of the
international character of wisdom.38 Lemuel is unknown, and
34 Again, see the
discussion in chapter two above, which addresses
this
matter in more detail.
35 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 176.
36 Whybray, Wealth and Poverty, 53.
37 W. L. McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach, OTL (
38 Other royal instruction
includes the Egyptian Instruction for
King Merikare (ANET, 418-419) and the Babylonian Advice to a Prince
(BWL, 110-115).
250
xWA.ma,
translated "oracle" in NIV and NASB, could be Massa39 (cf.
RSV), a
north Arabian tribe.40
In these proverbs the king is to speak out on behalf
of the mute,41
who are physically unable to speak out in their own defense,
and the poor and needy
(NOyb;x,v; ynifA),
who may not be able to garner proper
respect in society to
gain a fair hearing, or may be taken advantage of by
more wealthy litigants.
5. The Legal Process and Everyday Life
In Solomon A there is a short essay in 6:30-35
comparing
the lot of a thief and
an adulterer in the legal process and how society views
them. Even if the thief
is required to pay back sevenfold (6:31), which is
more than double what
the law required (see Exod 22:1-8), and it destroys
him financially, the
adulterer is worse off. Not only is he stupid because he
destroys his finances,
but much more seriously, he destroys himself (6:32).
Even worse for the
adulterer, the legal system is incapable of compensating
for the wrong done in
the eyes of the jealous husband (6:34-35), and no
amount of repayment can
replace what was taken. Whether or not capital
punishment was carried
out (Lev 20:10) things would never be as they once
were.
In the Sayings of the Wise there are admonitions not to
engage in
39 But see NIV textual
note, and cf. O. Ploger, Spruche Salomos,
BKAT
17 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1984), 369.
40 A. Meinhold, Die Spruche, 2 Teile (
1992),
2.517; cf. McKane, Proverbs, 407.
41 Some commentators see
"mute" (Mle.xi) as a figure for those who
may
be intimidated at the legal process (e. g. R. N. Whybray„ Proverbs,
NCBC
[
word
could not mean mute in the sense of physically unable to speak.
251
behavior which abuses
the poor because Yahweh will be their defender in
court, 22:22-23. In
this set of admonitions it is advised not, to exploit the poor
(lDA) or take legal advantage of the needy (ynifA) because Yahweh will avenge
them. Both lines of v.
22 probably refer to the same thing: the use of judi-
cial procedures, such
as the hiring of perjured witnesses or the bribing of
judges, to defraud the
poor of their rights.42
Proverbs 19, part of Solomon B, contains two proverbs,
19:18, 19,
which deal with
practical issues regarding the legal system. In 19:18 par-
ents are told to
discipline a child in order to avoid having him put to death,
as Deut 21:18-21
allows.43 In this passage a rebellious son can be brought
before the elders and
charged with being a profligate and a drunkard,
where upon conviction
he could be stoned to death. While no evidence exists
in the OT that this was
ever carried out, it must have been a deterrent in a
society which had no
organized professional police force or probation
officers.
Although 19:19 is obscure, McKane envisions a forensic
back-
ground.44
The one who fails to control his temper and commits impulsive
crimes should be left
to pay his own penalty. The hope here, of course, is
that this person will
soon learn self-control. Relieving someone of legal
consequences may have
the result of the person acting in excess again,
42 Whybray, Wealth and Poverty, 94. Whybray also
points out the
common
theme these admonitions reflect in ANE instructions, citing the
Egyptian
Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. See also chapter one above.
43 For more on this see my
discussion in "The Doctrine of the ‘Two
Ways’
in the Book of Proverbs," JETS
38 (1995): 508-509.
44 McKane, Proverbs,
529.
252
leaving them in the
same situation as before, requiring a fine to be paid.
And worse, it may
provide another opportunity for a crime to be committed,
thus causing someone
else to be another victim of his wrongdoing.
In 24:7, in the Sayings of the Wise, a fool (lyvix<) is shown to have
nothing to say in court
since wisdom is lacking. In a legal setting, where
judicious insight is at
a premium, the fool can offer nothing worth hearing.
In 29:7 (Solomon C) there is an observation regarding
justice for the
poor. The righteous are
said to be concerned over this matter, the wicked
are not. This stands to
reason, since Yahweh has expressed much interest
in looking out for the
poor. Those who are righteous would be more likely to
hold interests similar
to Yahweh, whereas the wicked would be less likely.
In 29:24 there is a word of advice for a thief's
accomplice. According
to Lev 5:1 anyone who
has direct knowledge of a crime must respond and
give testimony in
court. To fail in this makes that person guilty before God.
"Oath" (NIV),
hlAxA,
can also mean curse, since to break an oath is to put
oneself under a curse.45
The last two proverbs discussed under this heading are both
found in
the concluding poem of
the book in the Sayings of King Lemuel regarding
the good wife (31:10-31).
While the "city gate" in 31:23 and 31:31 may only be
a general reference to
public activities46 it would also include legal pro-
cedures, since the city
gate was often the place where legal cases were
heard and decided.
45 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 233.
46 McKane, Proverbs,
669-670.
253
6.
How Can Justice Be Understood?
Just as wisdom was often hard to come by for the
sages,
justice was also
sometimes difficult to determine. Prov 18:17 deals with this
quandary, observing
that one side of a case may sound correct until the
other party presents
his side. Participants in our legal system are very
frequently beset with
the same problem. Faulty memory, false information,
misinterpretation of
events, lying on the witness stand, concealment of
information, etc., all
have the possible effect of leading to incorrect verdicts.
How did the ancient
Israelites determine justice?
According to the sages learning wisdom would aid in this.
Among
the purposes of the
book in 1:3 is to do "what is right (qd,c,),
just (FPAw;mi) and
fair (MyriwAyme)." Learning from the sages
(note the instructional address,
2:1) in 2:6-9, 12-15
would give the wisdom of Yahweh and enable students to
understand justice, among
other things.
In the speech of Lady Wisdom in 8:12-21 there is reference
to rulers
governing in justice, qd,c, Uqq;Hoy; Myniz;Or (8:15-16), based on
wisdom, which
comes ultimately from
Yahweh, note 8:22ff.
Finally, 28:5 sums up the matter: "Evil men do not
understand
justice, but those who
seek Yahweh understand it fully." This proverb, tells
us that understanding
justice is based on the pursuit of the knowledge of
Yahweh himself. Justice
is based on Yahweh's law. The law is based on
the covenant. The
covenant relationship with Yahweh gave
for ethics, morality
and human relationships, rather than economic or
social motives. In this
way a well-ordered society guaranteed the rights of
254
the individual.47
E. Analysis of Individual Proverbs
Regarding Innocent Suffering
and the Legal System
Under this heading I will discuss four proverbs
(3:30; 13:23;
17:15; 17:26) with an
eye to how innocent suffering is treated in the book of
Proverbs in relation to
the legal system. Some of these passages have been
discussed before, and
matters of poetic structure and verbal links may have
been addressed
elsewhere. When this is the case I will draw attention to
the fact rather than
repeat the previous discussion.
1. 3:30
This proverb, a prohibition against bringing an
un-
necessary lawsuit
against a neighbor, is part of a poetic unit48 beginning
in 3:21 with the
instructional address "my son" and continuing through
3:35. This passage will
also be discussed in more depth below.
In 3:21-26 reasons are given for the addressee to observe
the instruc-
tion offered. They
center on the concepts of security and safety. Following
this are four
prohibitions against types of actions that will harm society in
3:27-30. The first two
(vv. 27-28) are stated in ways that indicate that the
reader should not fail
to do good, whereas the last two (vv. 29-30) prohibit
harmful behavior. The
last section is a prohibition against blatantly
47 See John H. Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural
Context, rev. (Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 1990), 87-92, for a brief comparison
of
the different purposes and ways law functioned in
and
48 For more details on the structure
division see Whybray, Proverbs,
69-70.
255
criminal activity,
followed by a motive clause which is expanded into a
statement of Yahweh's
retribution (3:31-35).49
In 3:30 there is a specific injunction against a lawsuit
intended to
harm the innocent:
:hfArA j~l;mAg;
xlo-Mxi Mn.AHi MdAxA-Mfi 50bvriTA-lxa
The word translated
"for no reason" (Mn.AHi)
is the same word used by
the Satan when Job's
piety is questioned (1:9), and also Yahweh's response
(2:3) in describing the
Satan's inciting action which caused damage to Job,
who was undeserving of
such treatment.
The reasons for this prohibition would be very much the
same then
as today. The wasting
of resources, time, and effort in order to carry out a
frivolous lawsuit would
cause a drain on a person, especially a poor person,
who could not take time
away from making a livelihood or providing for a
family. And it would
also tie up other people who had to function as judges
and witnesses,
distracting them from legitimate cases, or from their own
daily occupations.
49 See my discussion of
this passage in relation to this passage in
chapter
two above. W. G. E. Watson, Classical
Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to
Its Techniques, JSOTSS 26; 2nd
ed. (Sheffield:
1995),
278-279, cites the repetition of lxa plus jussive in
Prov 3:25-32 as a
dramatic
effect of emphatic negation
50 If we are to see any
consistency in the grammar of this passage
bvriTA should be read as byriTA in keeping with
the other verbs, cf. BHS
textual note.
256
2.
13:23
Following Garrett I see a small poem or grouping
of
proverbs in an ABAB'
pattern in 13:22-25:51
A 13:22 :xFeOH
lyHe qyDica.la NUpcAv; MynibA-yneB; lyHin;ya bOF
B 13:23 :FPAw;mi xloB; hP,s;ni wyev; MywixrA ryni lk,xo-brA
A' 13:24 :rsAUm OrHEwi ObhExov;
Onb; xneOW OFb;wi j`WeOH
B' 13:25 :rsAH;T, MyfiwAr; NF,b,U
Owp;na fbaWol; lkexo qyDica
The linking vocabulary between the A elements is
"son" (10) in vv. 22a
and 24a, and in the B
elements, the root lkx
in vv. 23a and 25a.
The specific proverb dealing with legal injustice is v. 23,
which is an
antithetical contrast
of result, rather than a type of person, as seen so fre-
quently in this section
of Proverbs.52 This proverb is also characterized by
a metrical rhythm and
alliterative assonance.53
Through no fault of his own, a poor man54 loses
the abundant
produce of his field
due to injustice. There is no specific agent cited as
causing the unjust
circumstances. This leaves the situation undefined,
51 Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 139.
52
wicked,
etc. The antithetical saying is a dominant stylistic feature in Prov
10-15,
according to R. E. Murphy, Wisdom
Literature, FOTL vol. 13 (Grand
Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1981) 50; cf. Meinhold, Die
Spruche, 1.19.
53 Watson, Hebrew Poetry, 315.
54 McKane (Proverbs, 463) reads MywixrA in its usual
sense of "head,
chief,
notable or grandee." In a textual note Ploger (Spruche Salomos, 157)
says,
"Eine besser Parallele ergibt die Lesung MywirA ('Armee') statt
MywixrA
('Haupter')."
Garrett agrees with the translation, but ties MywixrA to the root
wOr,
"poor" (Proverbs. Ecclesiastes,
139, n. 274).
257
and the cause of the
injustice may be from outside the poor man's sphere of
activity or influence,
or it may be due to his actions, if we see v. 25 working
in conjunction with v.
23. Since the situation is left undefined it may be
caused by a natural
act, such as fire or locusts, which are not under the
jurisdiction of any
legal code, but quite often those who suffer these types of
tragedies question the
"justice" of such events.
In light of the poetic structure of the grouping it seems
that a general
theme of providing for
the needs of one's family dominates these four
antithetical sayings.
The inheritance left for a good man's grandchildren
is contrasted to the
wealth of a sinner, which will be lost to the righteous (v.
22). Discipline is
emphasized in v. 24 as an important influence in child-
rearing. It contributes
toward a child being considered righteous by peers
in the community.
However, this process is not mechanical or automatic.
Injustice may occur due
to one agent or another (v. 23), but the grouping
closes with a general
maxim (v. 25), that the righteous will be provided for
but the wicked will
not. Garrett's comments along this line are particu-
larly apt:
On the one hand it may be injustice in
society (i. e., it is not the
family's fault, and their hunger
points to a need for changes in the
system). On the other hand, poverty
may be a result of sin in the
family. Addiction to alcohol, indolence,
and financial irresponsibility
are all potential causes of poverty,
although the terms "righteous"
and "wicked" imply divine
favor or disfavor as well. Proverbs takes a
balanced position; it neither
dehumanizes the poor on the grounds
that they are to blame for all their
troubles nor absolves the individual
of personal responsibility.55
55
Proverbs, Ecclesistes, 139-140.
258
3.
17:15
For discussion of the vocabulary links
and struc-
ture of Prov 17 see
chapter 3 III.A.4. above.56
The Hebrew terminology used in this saying makes it clear
that a
legal setting is in
view:
:Mh,ynew;-MGa
hvAhy; tbafEOT qyDica faywir;maU fwArA qyDic;ma
Acquitting the wicked and convicting
the righteous--
Both are an abomination to Yahweh.57
The first line of this proverb reverses the normal phrases
"acquit the
innocent" and
"convict the guilty" as seen in Deut 25:1, where they define
the proper functions of
judges. The perversion of the legal system is con-
demned as hvAhy; tbafEOT, one of the strongest
expressions of disapproval
found in Proverbs.58
This is not unique, of course, since corrupt judges were a
target of
56 Whybray (Proverbs,, 259) believes there is a link
between 17:15 and
vv.
11, 12, and 13 of that chapter, all of which speak of the mysterious fates
which
will befall the enemies of society.
57 Author's translation.
NIV is very close to this, but RSV is less
clear
that this is a judicial situation.
58 "Abomination"
indicated that which offended another's sensibili-
ties,
according to B. K. Waltke, "Abomination," ISBE, vol. 1 (1979), 13-14. A
stronger
meaning is claimed for the word by R. E. Clements, "The Concept
of
Abomination in the Book of Proverbs," in Texts,
A Tribute to
Menahem Haran,
ed. M. V. Fox et al. (
brauns, 1996), 211-225,
who calls it "abhorrent behavior."
259
condemnation in ANE
literature as well as the OT.59
4. 17:26
This proverb should be understood in
connection with
17:23, which comments
on the problem of bribes and their effect on
justice.60
:FPAw;mi tOHr;xA
tOF.hal; hqA.yi fwArA qyHeme dHawo v. 23
:rw,yo-lfa
Mybiydin; tOKhal; bOF-xlo qyDic.ala wOnfE MGa v. 26
The two sayings contain a contrast between the wicked (v.
23a) and
the righteous (v. 26a),
both make remarks on financial matters (bribes, v.
23a; fines, v. 26a) and
there is a similar sound to the words which begin the
second line of each
saying (tOF.hal;, v. 23b; tOKhal;, v. 26b).
The two matters in 17:26 are the fining of the righteous and
subject-
ing nobles to corporal
punishment, in a statement that begins with MGa,
often
left untranslated in
English versions.61 Imposing a fine (wOnfE)
is the pre-
59 In
cerned
with this, and in
dicy (lines 267-274, BWL, 87). In the OT see Exod 23:6-8;
Deut 16:18-20.
60 Garrett (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 162) sees
17:23-26 as a group of
connected
sayings but I have difficulty seeing the association beyond the
similar
ideas of injustice in vv. 23-26, unless the connections are seen as
very
loose, with vv. 24-25 making the observations on the fool (lysiK;). If this
is
the case this grouping is structured in an ABB’A’ pattern. I believe the
associations
are stronger between vv. 21-25 than between vv. 23-26, see Why-
bray,
Proverbs, 260-262.
61 This is true of RSV,
NRSV, NW, and NASV; but note KJV and
NKJV
which have "also." McKane (Proverbs,
506) suggests MGa may indicate
a previous statement on
the topic that was not preserved.
260
scribed punishment for
certain offenses, see Exod 21:22, where flogging
(hkn) is called for in others, see Deut
25:2-3.62 In both cases these penalties
are used as examples of
inappropriate legal practice.
The presence of MGa
and the unusual statement rw,y-lfa
make this
proverb difficult. The
particle MGa
may be here for emphasis similar to its
use in 1 Sam 19:19-24,
where it states that Saul sent messengers to arrest
David on three
occasions. Each time the messengers saw Samuel and the
others prophesying,
they also prophesied, or possibly "indeed they prophe-
sied." Then Saul
"indeed" he went and "indeed" he took off his royal robe
all
night. The use of MGa here does not indicate that the others
joined him in all
these actions, it is
simply an emphatic or intensive.63 Thus it is possible to
translate Prov 17:26a
as above, using MGa
as an intensive.
The expression rw,y-lfa
may mean "contrary to what is right."64 If
this is the case the
need for the emendation suggested by BHS and followed
by RSV is unnecessary.65
To summarize the discussion of Proverbs and the legal
system, we
have briefly observed
the workings of the court system in the ANE and
62 NIV translates wOnfE as
"punish," whereas RSV, NRSV, and
NASV
have "fine." The word can be used either way, but it seems better as
a
specific term of legal redress, cf. Code
of Hammurapi § 209-214; and Deut
22:19.
In Prov 21:11 fines are shown to be instructive but here in 17:26 the
issue
is one who is penalized unjustly. The fact that it is paralleled with
tOKha, "flogged, beaten"
makes the monetary punishment a more specific
translation,
cf. Ploger, Spruche Salomos, 200,
207.
63 R. L. Harris, "Mmg," TWOT, 1.167.
64 Whybray, Proverbs, 262; McKane, Proverbs, 507.
65 BHS apparatus suggests that the text be emended to read rt,y,,
"excessively"
or "beyond measure," cf. RSV's "abundantly."
261
system with its
problems as well as its positive features one can see the
mixed bag presented by
the book. On one hand, the legal system is affirmed
and the king is saluted
as the idealized defender of the rights of the
oppressed. On the
other, the sages admit to the possibilities of abuses,
citing the false
witness or the false accuser, or even dishonest judges.
When we turned our attention toward specific instances of
legal
abuses in Proverbs we
found harmful lawsuits being brought against
people, cases where the
righteous were convicted of crimes and the
criminal declared innocent,
injustice occurring to the poor due to unknown
or unnamed reasons, and
the application of legal punishments in an
inappropriate manner.
The opinion of some who have claimed that Proverbs contains
generalized,
conventional wisdom that rarely goes beyond the superficial
should be re-evaluated.66
An investigation of the proverbs addressing the
matter of legal
injustice has shown that several issues were brought up,
many of which still
cause problems for today's legal participants. Just
because a legal matter
can be summarized in a few words does not
necessarily mean it is
trite, superficial or painless. It may be tempting for
some to relegate
proverbs to this superficial classification because of their
brevity. Because they
are not essays, they are considered to lack depth. The
study of the proverbs
dealing with legal issues has shown that this is not
the case.
66 See specifically the quotes above in chapter
two, I.B.
262
II.
Damaging Words (11:9, 11)
There is only one small grouping of proverbs where the
suffering of
the innocent or
righteous is attributed to words, speech, or mouth of
another without
reference to a setting, such as the legal system (in the case
of the false witness),
or in an undefined situation where a shameful son, for
example, may show
disdain or contempt for parents. This may include
verbal abuse but it is
not limited to speech. Hence this is a unique passage
in the book of
Proverbs. No other setting or situation is envisioned wherein
we might place the
damaging words. The point of reference is left unde-
fined, and we cannot
place this passage in any other category in this study.
Determining the limits of this small group of sayings is an
issue of
discussion among those
who attempt to discern structure within the
chapters of Proverbs.
Ploger sees 11:9-14 as a group of sayings concerned with
the relation-
ship of the individual
to the community as a whole rather than with
individuals and
involvement with others,67 citing the occurrence of words
such as
"neighbor" (vv. 9, 12), "city" (vv. 10, 11),
"gossip" (v. 13), and "people"
(v. 14).
However, I believe that a tighter structure may be observed
if the
passage is limited to
vv. 9-12, and noting the emphasis on speech in every
verse. In vv. 9-12 each
verse beins with the Hebrew letter B,
giving the
passage an initially
identical look and sound:
67 Spruche
Salomos, 137.
263
A 11:9 :UcleHAye MyqiyDica
tfadab;U Uhfere tHaw;ya JneHA hp,B;
B 11:10 :hn.Ari
MyfiwAr; dboxEbaU hyAr;qi ClofETa
MyqiyDica bOFB;
B' 11:11 :srehATe
MyfiwAr; yPb;U tr,qA MUrTA MyriwAy; tKar;biB;
A' 11:12 :wyriHEya tOnUbT; wyxiv;
ble-rsaHE Uhferel;-zBa
In addition to the initial line of every proverb beginning
with the
same letter the second
line of the first three all begin with the conjunction v
followed by b.
The A elements make reference to the "mouth" (v.
9), one who be-
littles or derides68
another and remaining silent (v. 12). There are also
parallels between the
godless (v. 9a) and the one who lacks judgment (v.
12a), both of whom do
or say things to harm a neighbor (vv. 9a, 12a) The
righteous (v. 9b) are
compared to the one who possesses understanding (v.
12b).
The B elements are a parallel pair due to their remarks on
the
"city"69
and various references to speech, such as rejoicing (v. 10), bles-
sing, and the mouth
(v.11). The initial saying of the B element (v. 10) picks
up the term
"righteous" (MyqiyDica)
from the first saying in the A elements (v.
9) and comments on the
similar reactions to the fate of the righteous (v. l0a)
68 The root zvb is also found
in Prov 6:30; 30:17; where it is a verbal
expression
of contempt and associated with gfl, "to
mock," see also 2 Kgs
19:21;
Isa 37:22.
69 In v. 10 the Hebrew word
for city is hyAr;qi; in v. 11 it is tr,qA. Why-
bray
(Proverbs, 179) believes the two
different words indicate separate com-
position
and later linking, but it could simply be stylistic variation. tr,qA
occurs only in wisdom
materials, see Job 29:7; Prov 8:3; 9:3, 14.
264
in contrast to the
wicked (MyfiwAr; v. 10b). Then
v. 11 compares the positive
effects of words with
the damaging results that can occur. The upright
(MyriwAy;), a parallel to the righteous, can
build up or exalt a city70 by their
blessing. But words can
also be used to the detriment of others to overthrow
or destroy?71
a city, when coming from the mouth of the wicked, a con-
trasting term to both
righteous and upright, and here seen as a parallel
term in vv. 10-11 to
godless (JneHA
v. 9) and one who lacks judgment (ble-rsaHE
v. 12). The two final
words of vv. 11 and 12 have similar sounds (srehATe
v.
11b; wyriHEya v.12b), which may also contribute
to the linking of these sayings.
III.
Harmful Actions
Again, this tends to be a "catch-all" category
because many of the say-
ings which mention
innocent suffering do not specify an action, or they are
so general they can not
be placed in any other category. When proverbs
have been discussed
under related categories in our earlier discussion the
70 The Hebrew word MUrTA is from the
root
may
refer to enhanced status, cf. Ps 89:17[16]; Isa 52:13; or to a general
prosperity.
The contrast to the next verb (from the root srh, see below) has
led
some to suggest the root Mmr, "to build, build up" based
on Ugaritic or
Arabic
analogies, see Whybray, Proverbs,
180; McKane, Proverbs, 432. Re-
gardless
of which is accepted it is obvious that it refers to a positive idea.
71 The root srh means to tear
down or destroy, usually with refer-
ence
to cities (2 Sam 11:25; 2 Kgs 3:25; Isa 14:17; Jer 31:40; Ezek 36:35), walls
(Jer
50:15; Ezek 13:14;; 26:4, 12; Prov 24:31), strongholds (Mic 5:10[11]; Lam
2:2),
a house (Prov 14:1) as well as altars and cultic sites (Judg 6:25; 1 Kgs
18:30;
19:10, 14; Ezek 16:39). God can tear down or destroy mountains (Ezek
38:20)
and break the teeth of the wicked (Ps 58:7[6]). This root sometimes
appears
in contrast to hng "to build," see Ezek 36:36;
Mal 1:4; Ps 28:5; Prov
14:1; Job 12:14; see G.
Munderlein, "srahA
haras," TDOT, vol. 3 (1978), 462.
265
reader will be referred
to those discussions rather than repeat the informa-
tion.
A. 1:8-19
Following the title (1:1), purpose (1:2-6), and
theme (1:7)72 the
first instruction73
found in the book of Proverbs tells young people of the
dangers they may face
by associating with criminals.
This passage is structured along clear lines, with vv. 8-9
constituting
an introductory appeal,
v. 10 containing the specific situation to be avoided,
vv. 11-14 comprising an
imagined quote of the robbers, vv. 15-18 expanding
on the prohibition in
v. 10, as well as a warning about the fate of the
brigands, and v. 19 a
concluding summary of the destiny of those who
pursue a criminal
life-style.74
The specific part of this instruction that is important for
this study is
the statement in 1:11,
where the robbers seek to entice a young person into
their gang with the
lure of easy wealth:
:MnA.Hi yqinAl; hnAP;c;ni MdAl; hbAr;x,n,
The usual expression for innocent blood (yqinA MdA) is spread over both
72 Meinhold (Die Spruche, 1.46-50) calls these
elements Uberschrift,
Vorspruch and Motto. Garrett (Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 66-67) refers to 1:1
as
the title and 1:2-7 as the prologue. Whybray (Proverbs, 30) entitles 1:1-7
the
preface.
73 Whybray, Proverbs, 37.
74 I have dealt with
structural matters in more detail elsewhere. See
my
article "The Doctrine of the ‘
(1995):
511-512.
266
halves of this proverb.
Watson calls this the break-up of a composite
phrase, a phrase found
over eighteen times in the OT.75 One can also see
this phenomenon in 1
Sam 25:31; 1 Kgs 2:31.
As many commentators point out, the two verbs used (brx, Npc)
are
repeated in v. 18,
showing the doctrine of retribution at work.76 The
repetition of these
verbs in association with the punishment exacted on the
criminals attempts to
show young people that crime does not pay. The
structure of the
exhortation strengthens the message. There are alterna-
tive appeals between
the wisdom teacher (vv. 10, 15-18) and the robbers (v.
11-14), with the verbs
in vv. 11, 18 forming an inclusio.77
The agent of punishment is left unnamed in order to leave
open the
possibilities for human
agents to bring punishment or for judgment to be
carried out by Yahweh.
In v. 11b the innocent (yqinA)
are attacked wantonly
(MnA.Hi) or without reason. Whybray says the
attack on unsuspecting travelers
is carried out for the
sake of the enjoyment of violence by the criminals,
with the acquisition of
loot being secondary.78 However, the remainder of
the imagined quote in
vv. 12-14 places strong emphasis on the plunder
associated with this
activity, making it appealing to a young person who
might otherwise live in
a manner which was much less exciting and less
75 Watson, Hebrew Poetry, 328-329; see Deut 21:8;
Isa 59:7; Ps 106:38;
etc.
76 For a discussion of
retribution in Proverbs see chapter two above
(I.A.2.),
and L. Bostrom, The God of the Sages
(
sell,
1990), 90-140.
77 Garrett, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 69.
78 Proverbs, 39.
267
lucrative by
comparison.79 The instruction makes the point of avoiding
criminal activity with
its promise of easy wealth, and places an implied
value on work and
industry.80
B. 3:27-35
Part of this passage has been discussed above in
relation to
legal injustice, since
one of the "harmful actions" (3:30) occurs in a legal
setting.81
It is not my intent to discuss this passage in its entirety nor deal
with its relation to
the larger context and role within the context, but to
limit the present study
to the topic of the innocent sufferer.82
This passage contains six prohibitions, four of which have
to do with
antisocial behavior
which will harm the innocent. The fifth and sixth pro-
hibitions (v. 31) are
against envying the violent and following their example.
Verses 27-28 warn against "sins of omission," the
failure to do good:
:tOwfEla
j~yd;yA lxel; tOyh;Bi vylAfAB;mi bOF-fnam;Ti-lxa
:j`TAxi wyev;
NTex, rHAmAU bUwvA j`le j~yfErel; rmaxTo-lxa
Essentially these two prohibitions are referring to the
same action.
79 See my comments on this
in "Doctrine of the ‘
80 Other proverbs also
promote these values, see 10:4-5; 12:14; 14:23;
27:18,
23-27; 28:19; etc.
81 See also my previous
discussion in chapter two in relation to retri-
bution
(I.A.2.).
82 Because this chapter is
such a complex work scholars divide it up
differently.
Whybray (Proverbs, 69-70) and Meinhold
(Die Spruche, 1.82-84)
see
3:21-35 as a unit, whereas McKane (Proverbs,
297-300) and Ploger
(Spruche Salomos, 39-43) separate vv.
21-26 from vv. 27-35, with a possible
further
division between vv. 30 and 31.
268
The statements are
general enough to include a broad range of activity from
a simple acknowledgment
of someone to repayment of a loan.83
Verses 29-30 contain "sins of commission,"
actions committed
against another:
:j`TAxi HFab,lA bweOy-xUhv; hfArA j~fEre-lfa wroHETa-lxa
:hfArA
j~l;mAg; xlo-Mxi Mn.AHi MdAxA-Mfi 84byriTA-lxa
In v. 29 the activity is premeditated, and with intent to
harm another.
It may include
spreading damaging rumors or a scheme to deceive the
neighbor and put him at
a disadvantage.85 There is an extreme contrast
in this saying between
the one who plots86 harm and the neighbor who
dwells trustfully
nearby.
Although v. 30 has been treated above in regard to legal
injustice the
root is not limited to
the legal sphere. It often contains legal juridical
implications but can
also refer to physical combat (Exod 21:18; Deut 33:7;
etc.) or quarreling
(Exod 17:2; Hos 4:4). The various possibilities of trans-
lation are reflected in
English versions: NIV, "accuse;" RSV and NASV,
"contend;"
NRSV, "quarrel;" NKJV, "strive." Regardless of whether this
prohibition is against
legal action, an argument or a fistfight it is still seen
83 Whybray, Proverbs, 72.
84 Following Qere and BHS apparatus.
85 E. g., on a larger scale
Jezebel's scheme against Naboth in 1 Kgs
21,
or in the book of Esther, Haman's plot to destroy Mordecai.
86 The root wrH can mean
"to plan, plot" and is used this way in
Proverbs
(6:14, 18; :12:20; 14:22). It can also be translated "to plow" (Prov
20:4). Hos 10:13
contains both ideas.
269
as groundless and
unnecessary, as MnA.Hi
(see above) indicates.
Then following these four prohibitions is a double
prohibition in v. 31
with a motive clause in
v. 32. The double prohibition does not specifically
mention the violent man
(smH) causing harm to the
innocent but it is
inferred. This is a
person who uses physical force to intimidate others or,
as in 1:8-19, to take
what belongs to others in order to profit by it (cf. 2:12-15).
The motive clause is
expanded in vv. 33-34 and the section is concluded by a
final antithetic
proverb:
:vykArAD;-lkABA
rHab;Ti-lxav; smAHA wyxiB; xne.qaT;-lxa v.
31
:OdOs
MyriwAy;-tx,v; zOlnA hvAhy; tbafEOt yKi v.
32
:j`rebAy; MyqiyDica hvEn;U fwArA tybEB; hvAhy; traxem; v. 33
:NHe-NT,yi
MyyinAfElav; CyliyA-xUh Mycile.la-Mxi v. 34
:NOlqA
Myrime Myliysik;U UlHn;yi MymikAHE dObKA v.
35
If 3:21-35 is a
cohesive unit of poetry, it is a condemnation of those who
harm the innocent. The
six prohibitions against this behavior in vv. 27-31
are then further
described as perverse (zOlnA87)
and an abomination to Yah-
weh (hvAhy; tvafEOt88).
The perverted one is one whose conduct goes against
Yahweh's way.89
In v. 32 the NOlnA is
an antonym to those who are upright
87 Cf. also the occurrence
of the root zln in 3:21. Here it is seen as an
antonym
of rwy.
88 For further discussion
of hbfOT
see chapter two above, and cf. Prov
11:20;
15:9.
89 The predominant context
of the root zUl is in wisdom texts and
often
associated with the idea of a path, cf. 2:15; 14:2. Since Proverbs uses
the
idea of a path as a metaphor for the course of life or conduct, one who
chooses the wrong path
is one who chooses the wrong values. For more
270
(rwy), a group of people
Yahweh claims as intimates,90 an idea that is also
associated with a path
or way, cf. 3:6; 4:11; 12:15; 14:12; 15:19; 16:17, 25; 21:2;
etc.
Verses 33-34 expand on the content of v. 32, stating that
the curse91
of Yahweh is on the
house92 of the wicked (v. 33a) and, in a case of exact
retribution, Yahweh
mocks those who mock (v. 34a), but blesses the
righteous (v. 33b) and
gives grace to the humble (v. 34b). If v. 35 is seen as
the concluding summary
the last three verses can be charted thusly:
humanly chosen conduct divinely assigned result
v. 33 wicked/just curse/blessing
v. 34 mocking/humilty mocks/gives grace
v. 35 wise/fools glory/shame93
This passage, when taken as a unit, shows Yahweh's concern
for
those innocent victims
in society who suffer abuse at the hands of those who
seek to gain from the
misery and pain they inflict on others. Though the
discussion
of this idea see my article "The Doctrine of the ‘
514.
For discusion of the root zUl see H. Ringgren,
"zUl
luz," TDOT, vol. 7
(1995),
478-479.
90 The meaning of dOs is that of an
intimate and confidential rela-
tionship
characterized by trust.
91 See chapter three above
(III.B.2.) for more discussion on curses
and
cursing.
92 The extended family or bxA-tyBe
see
chapter three above (I.A.1.c.).
"Adapted
from D. A. Hubbard, Proverbs (Dallas:
Word, 1989), 79; cf.
also
the comments of McKane, Proverbs,
302, regarding the antithetic
balance
of these verses.
271
passage does not
contain the passionate preaching of Amos or Isaiah on the
social abuses of their
day it shows an awareness of the suffering of the
innocent that many
would say the sages lacked. The passage is more
sensitive to the
psychological aspects of victimization by verbal violence.
C. 6:16-19
The form-critical category of this passage is the
numerical
saying, which consists
of a title-line and a list. The title-line mentions the
feature(s) which the
items listed have in common.94 Numerical sayings in
Proverbs are found in
6:16-19; 30:15b-16; 18-20, 21-23, 24-28, 29-31. Quite
often they show the x,
x + 1 pattern. This form of speech was not limited to
wisdom literature. It is also found in prophetic materials,95
although it
seems more common in
wisdom literature (cf. Job 5:19) since the purpose
was to function as a
memory aid, to encourage repetition as a riddle or a
game, and to place
emphasis on the last item in the list.96 The use of
numerical sayings
reflects the sages' use of comparable items to under-
stand the order of
their world.97
94 R. E. Murphy, Wisdom Literature, 180.
95 See Amos 1-2; Mic 5:5,
and possibly Jer 15:2-3. For more on the
numerical
sayings in the prophets see M. H. Pope, "Number, Numbering,
Numbers,"
IDB, 3.564. Pope also cites parallels
of this form in Ugaritic
literature,
cf. CTA, 14:14-21. See also in
Akkadian literature Erra L31-38.
The
most comprehensive study of the numerical saying is W. M. W. Roth,
Numerical
Sayings of the Old Testament, VTSup 13 (Leiden: Brill., 1965).
96 Hubbard, Proverbs, 102.
97 H.-P. Muller, "Der
Begriff ‘Ratsel’ im Alten Testament," VT
20
(1970):
465-489; see also G. von Rad, Wisdom in
Israel (London: SCM, 1972),
35-37;
and Roth, Numerical Sayings, 34-36.
272
:Owp;na
98tbafEOT fbaw,v; hvAhy; xneWA hnA.he-ww,
v. 16
:yqinA-MDA tOkp;wo MyidayAv; rq,wA NOwl; tOmrA Myinayfe
v. 17
:hfArAlA CUrlA
tOrhEmam; Myilag;ra Nv,xA tObw;H;ma wreHo ble v.
18
:MyHixa NyBe MynidAm; Hale.wam;U rq,wA dfe MybizAK; HaypiyA v.19
Following the title-line are seven actions or attitudes
that are classi-
fied as an abomination
to Yahweh, the usual sequence of these words being
split up over two
lines.99 The first five elements of the list are parts of the
body, in more or less
descending order: eyes, tongue, hands, heart, feet.
This list is an
indication of things which destroy the possibility of a positive
relationship with
Yahweh.100 The last two specifically belong to a social
setting, the false
witness and the one who disrupts relationships (cf.
6:14).101
In this list there are several items that could by
implication be
associated with
innocent suffering, as well as one action that refers to it
directly. In v. 17
"haughty (lit. "raised") eyes" are those lifted up in
defiance
or arrogance, the
opposite of humility and respect (cf. Ps 18:28[27]; 131:1;
Prov 30:13). The
"lying tongue" (lit. a "tongue of falsehood," cf. 4:24;
6:12) is
98 Following Qere and BHS apparatus.
99 The usual expression is hvhy
hbfvt
but here the poet divided the
expression
to extend over two lines. This makes hvhy xnW in v. 16a
parallel
to
Owpn tbfvt in v. 16b. For further discussion of hvhy
xnW
see chapter two
above
and R. E. Clements, "The Concept of Abomination in the Book of Pro-
verbs,"
211-225.
100 For a list of ethical
requirements for approaching Yahweh in the
temple
see Pss 15, 24; see Whybray, Proverbs,
100.
101 For an analysis of
these seven elements from a practical viewpoint
see
Garrett, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, 98.
273
metonymy for one that
has no regard for the truth, and "hands that shed
innocent blood"
describes the murderer (cf. 1:11), and is the specific
example of causing the
innocent to suffer in this list. A similar expression
has already been
discussed above under 1:8-19 and need not be elaborated on
here. In v. 18 we see
the heart that devises evil plans (cf. 3:29 and the
discussion there) and
feet that run swiftly to evil, which are possible
instances of causing
injury or pain to the undeserving, but the text is too
general to allow a
specific application. In v. 19 a legal situation may be
pictured, as the false
witness (rq,wA dfe)
is listed as another abomination
(cf. 14:5b). One who
gives false testimony in court subverts justice in order
to deflect their own
deserved punishment for a crime, or to help convict
someone else. Either
way, the truth is covered and justice is denied. The
final item in the list
is one who spreads dissension or strife among
brothers. This is not
necessarily restricted to brothers in the sense of
family, it can also
refer to the fraternal bonds of society, since Israelite men
commonly referred to
themselves as "brothers," see e. g., 2 Sam 19:42[41].
The one who seeks to
sever these bonds is a menace to society since in times
of calamity such as
natural disasters, war, or other problems, it is the
cohesiveness of a
society that contributes to its survival.
D. 16:29
Among the chapters in Solomon B, chapter 16 shows
the most
evidence of editorial
structure and arrangement. The first nine verses
show a heavy emphasis
on Yahweh-proverbs, with all but one (v. 8) con-
taining the divine
name. The chapter also closes with a divine proverb,
274
echoing v. 1, to form an
envelope.102 The other theme of chapter 16 is
centered around the
king, with royal proverbs gaining prominence in vv.
10-15, of which all but
v. 11 make reference to the king. These two topics are
intertwined in vv. 9-12
where the sequence is:
v. 9 Yahweh proverb
v. 10 Royal proverb
v. 11 Yahweh proverb
v. 12 Royal proverb103
The rest of the chapter seems to be a miscellany of sayings
on the
virtues associated with
wisdom, with little apparent organization, until we
reach vv. 27-30. These
verses are a group of sayings on evil schemes and
have little association
with the preceding sayings. Each proverb in vv. 27-29
begins with wyxi followed by a noun which describes the
character of the
type of person under
consideration. Then v. 30 summarizes the section by
pointing out the
external signs which should give a clue regarding how
these persons can be
recognized:
102 See Whybray, Proverbs, 238-239, for discussion of the
editorial
structure
of Prov 16.
103 Whybray, Proverbs,
238.
275
A 16:27 :tb,rAcA wxeK; vyotpAW;-lfav; hfArA hr,Ko lfaya.liB; wyxi
A 16:28 :JUl.xa
dyrip;ma NGAr;niv; NOdmA Hla.way;
tOkPuh;Ta wyxi
A 16:29 :bOF-xlo
j`r,d,B; OkyliOhv; Uhfere hT,pay; smAHA wyxi
B 16:30 :hfArA hlA.Ki vytApAW; Creqo tOkPuh;Ta bwoH;la vynAyfe hc,fo
This grouping of proverbs has several verbal links to
6:12-15 and 6:16-
19.104 In
16:27 the lfaya.liB; wyxi
is similar to lfaya.liB; MdAxA
in 6:12;105 in 16:28,
30 tOkPuh;Ta is found as well as in 6:14; NOdmA Hla.way; is found in 16:28 and
also
in 6:14, where it
appears as hale.way; MynidImi;
the idea of plotting evil in 16:27,
hfArA
hr,Ko,
is a similar idea to devising wicked schemes, Nv,xA
tObw;H;ma wr,Ho
in 6:18; and the rare
root Crq in 16:30 meaning
"to compress" is also found
in 6:13 in reference to
winking the eyes.106 Because vv. 27-29 are parallel
statements we should
probably not seek to make fine distinctions among the
three types of people
referred to. All can be classified under the category of
antisocial attitudes
and behavior, since all three cause damage, division
and possibly even
death. Speech figures prominently in this grouping as
the area of offense,
with lips (vytAPAW;
vv. 27, 30) and slander (NGAr;ni;107
v. 28)
104 There is also a
statement of innocent suffering in 6:16-19 (see v. 17)
and
this passage is discussed above.
105 McKane, Proverbs, 493, believes lfaya.liB; to mean a state
of inner
confusion
and contrariness, referring to a deranged and destructive man
rather
than the usual meanings of "worthless, useless" or
"profitless," see
his
discussion on 325 as well.
106 Whybray, Proverbs, 250. The action of winking the
eyes is also
found
in 16:30a but uses the root hcf rather than Crq. The root Crq may
refer
to a "narrowing" of the eyes into a glare rather than winking, since
winking
is not generally considered a hostile gesture, cf. Prov 10:10.
107 This word is found only
in Proverbs, see also 18:8; 26:20, 22. The
276
being specified. Also
mentioned twice is the idea of friends or a neighbor
(vv. 28, 29). The
slanderer is said to separate close friends (JUl.xa,
a collec-
tive noun), and a man
of violence entices his neighbor (Uhfere)
and leads him
in a way characterized
as bOF-xlo. This verse is
the specific action which
an innocent person
suffering or coming to harm due to the actions of
another. The smAHA wyxi is a misanthropic person who
employs deceit to lure
his friend, neighbor or
companion to no good end. It is difficult to discern
whether this proverb is
intended to be used literally or figuratively. If it is a
literal use, the
companion is "caused to walk down a path not good." Since
walking down a path or
way can be taken concretely, this may be a refer-
ence to an ambush,
similar to the action of the robbers in 1:10-19, where the
same verb for
"entice" (htp)
is ,used. If the proverb is seen figuratively then
we have a violent man
influencing his companion into a similar life-style,
hence the violent man
is a bad example. The word j`r,D,
can function
equally well in both
spheres, and the beauty of this saying may be in its
flexibility to function
at both the literal level as well as the figurative.108
There is no specific
reference to an innocent sufferer in vv. 27-28 but on the
other hand, there is no
statement that the close friends deserved to be
separated by a
slanderer. The ;lfay.aliB; wyxi,
for example, is not specifically
linked with plotting
harmful actions against the innocent or the righteous
but one may make the
assumption that his actions will be directed against
verb
Ngr
was used to refer to
Ps
106:25; cf. Isa 29:24.
108 Cf. also 16:25 as an
example of flexibility of the literal and
figurative.
277
the unwitting or the
defenseless in society, since they are usually the
easiest marks, and
because his actions are seen (as are all the people
warned against in vv.
27-30) to be a disruption to society and going against
the common good. If
this were not the case they would not be categorized as
scoundrels, perverts,
and murderers.
In a chapter that emphasizes the role of Yahweh to direct
the lives of
people (16:1-9) and the
duty of kings to enforce justice (16:10-15), followed by
various sayings on the
positive virtues associated with wisdom and the
rewards of wise living
(16:16-26), there follows an extraordinary group of
sayings which admit to
the fact that not all members of society will follow
the wise instruction
offered by teachers or leaders. They are characterized
by antisocial behavior
which brings harm and disruption to the community
since their actions are
directed toward those who are undeserving of the
results of the actions
of these misanthropic people. They live outside the
law of the king and the
law of Yahweh. If the law of retribution was as
clean-cut and clear as
some have accused the sages of believing, 16:27-30
would have never been
included in the collection. It clearly acknowledges
the existence of those
living in society who are out to harm others who are
innocent of their fate.
E. 17:13
For discussion of the stucture and the possible
vocabulary links
in Prov 17 see the previous
examination under I.E.3. The most obvious link
between 17:13 and the
surrounding sayings are the reversals seen in 17:13
and 17:15. The
contrasting terms in these two sayings are typical of pro-
278
verbs which seek to
show opposite actions. In 17:13 evil (hfr)
and good
(bOF) are found, whereas in 17:15 the roots fwr and qdc
are used in a
grammatically complex
saying regarding the legal system (see above).
The saying in 17:13, which plays on a pun between the roots
wvm and
bvw,
reads:
:OtyBemi hfArA
109wymitA-xlo hbAOF tHATA hfArA bywime
The reversal in this saying is seen in the sphere of
interpersonal
relationships. Those
who reward or repay kindness with evil (cf. the lex
talionis)
are examples of those who lack the sense to see that they are their
own worst enemy. One
who does harm to a benefactor brings evil on his
own house (tyBe), referring to the larger family unit.110
The proverb does not tell us how evil is introduced into
this person's
family, thus it may be
the result of his own poor judgment or mistreatment
of relatives; or it may
be left undefined to leave open the possibilities of
divine judgment.
IV.
Conclusion
Conclusions to the various sections have been drawn at the
end of the
various discussions and
need not be repeated here. However, I will
109 Accepting the
emendation in BHS apparatus as opposed to the
MT's
wy.mtA.
110 See the discussion of tyBe and bxA-tyBe
in
chapter three above
(I.A.1.c.).
279
reiterate that the
legal system was not beyond misapplication of justice so
as to cause innocent
suffering. Whether this happened due to accident,
bribes, false witness,
poor memory of a witness, or a long list of other
possibilities, it is
impossible to deny that the wisdom movement was aware
of the fact that
injustice occurred, and that the innocent or righteous were
sometimes wrongly
convicted, or the guilty were declared innocent after
they had committed
crimes against the undeserving.
In cases of damaging words and harmful actions, the
innocent are
portrayed as
undeserving of their fate, thus according to them a dignity
which, for example,
Job's friends did not allow him. Guilt was assumed by
the three counselors as
the cause of Job's pain, and any remedy they offered
had to go through the
initial step of admitting guilt. The book of Proverbs
does not lend credence
to the arguments of the three friends by painting the
human condition in the
broad-stroke categories as is often portrayed. Yes,
there are proverbs
which make general assumptions regarding retribution,
but there are others,
the subject of this study, which often state the excep-
tions to the doctrine
of retribution.
280
CHAPTER SIX
FINAL SUMMARY
This study has examined issues of theodicy and the way
suffering is
portrayed in the
literature of
wrongly applied to
virtually all documents that have been discovered to this
point. It is only in
the literature of ancient
applies. When von
Soden's four elements of theodicy1 were used as a
basis for comparison of
the literature from ancient Mesopotamia and
the conclusion was
reached that there were social, cultural, and religious
factors which made
theodicy virtually non-existent in those settings.
In
mortem judgment and
reward or punishment. Each individual would
have his or her actions
weighed against ma'at in order for
reward or
punishment to be
determined. The belief in a judgment after death relieved
the need for equitable
retribution during earthly life since all wrongs could
be righted and all
scores settled in the judgment. In a rare instance of
blaming the gods for
suffering the king responded that the people them-
selves were at fault by
failing to observe ma'at.2
Thus the conventional
view was retained.
For the Mesopotamians the situation was more complex. There
were
frequent examples of
protest over mistreatment, suffering, illness, and the
1 See chapter one above,
I.A.
2 See the Admonitions of Ipuwer in AEL, vol. 1 (1973), 161, especial-
ly n. 29, and the
discussion in chapter one above (II.B.2.a.).
281
like. However, these
situations were usually seen as attacks from demons,
or from an offended
deity.3 Any suggestion of blame ascribed to a god or
goddess was expressed
in very cautious terms. The responsibility of the
gods was not to
humanity, their "employees," but to make the enormous
and complicated machine
of the world run effectively.4 The underlying
assumption in
Mesopotamian religion was that all people were ignorant of
their sin but not
innocent. Thus the burden was on individuals to deter-
mine how they had
offended a god or goddess so appeasement could be
initiated and their
suffering halted.
All instances of suffering were directly attributable to
sin, almost
completely apart from
divine responsibility. In other words, all people who
were enduring times of
suffering were assumed to be guilty. The action
which caused the
alienation between deity and human was often seen as a
cult or ritual offense.
The process of getting back into the good graces of the
god or goddess assumed
that all sufferers are sinners. This required the
suppliants to recite
the Surpu incantations, for example,
or practice divi-
nation so that the
offended deity would reveal the sin which caused the
pain. As I have shown
in the studies above, all are assumed to be ignorant
sufferers, but not
innocent.
This is quite different from ancient
the Torah and the
process of acquiring forgiveness was mapped out by a
3 See the discussion of J.
Bottero, "The Problem of Evil in Mesopota-
mian
Mythology and Theology," in Mythologies,
ed. Y. Bonnefoy, rev. W.
Doniger,
2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 1.163-164.
4 Bottero, "Problem of
Evil," 163. The gods created people as their
"employees"
to do the work they did not want to be bothered with, see chap-
ter one above (ILA.).
282
series of offerings and
sacrifices. Rather than having to wonder what deity
had been offended the
ancient Israelite was assured of knowing that all sin
was ultimately against
Yahweh (cf. Ps 51:5[4]). Thus there was no need to
attempt divination to
determine which deity was offended. Since sin was
defined more definitely
in
tains accounts of
individuals confessing or being confronted with specific
actions or attitudes
characterized as "sin."5
This is not the place to enter in to a detailed discussion
of how suffer-
ing was interpreted in
the Hebrew Bible, but we can note three main cate-
gories: (1)
retributive, (2) educative and exemplary, and (3) vicarious and
redemptive.6
The dominant interpretation of suffering was that it came
as a result of human
sin.7 However, there was no attempt to show that a
person's suffering or
prosperity was always directly related to their
obedience to God. The
authors of the Hebrew Bible recognized that life was
much more complex than
a simple cause-and-effect formula. Suffering
may be brought about by
sin and its victims may be deserving and the
undeserving alike.
Suffering may also function in an educational manner, as in
Deut
8:1-6. Here the
wilderness wandering was presented as a time of humbling
and testing (8:2),
teaching
5 One of the more notable
occurrences is Nathan's confrontation
with
David in 2 Sam 12.
6 R. B. Edwards,
"Suffering," ISBE, vol. 4
(1988), 649-652.
7 D. J. Simundson,
"Suffering," ABD,
6.219-225. For more detail on
this
see idem, Faith Under Fire: Biblical
Interpretations of Suffering (Min-
neapolis:
283
God's role as a divine
parent is brought out (8:5) to show that the disci-
plinary actions were
carried out on the nation with motives similar to
parental love. The
concept of God using suffering to teach individuals is
also found in Job.8
Efforts were also made to portray suffering as redemptive
rather
than punitive, either
for others or for the sufferer. Isa 40-55 speaks of a
servant who suffers for
the benefit of others.
ing cultures, since
individuals were allowed to relate directly to Yahweh,
their "high
God" and "great king," in a way that the Egyptians and Meso-
potamians were rarely
allowed. So, for example, suffering individuals in
behalf, as in
virtually always made
the responsibility of the individual who had failed to
live up to the
standards of ma'at, thus allowing isft, or disorder, into his
or her life.
The specific issue in this dissertation was that of the
innocent suffer-
er in the book of
Proverbs. To the best of my knowledge this is the first in-
depth study of this
topic. Past scholarship has simply promoted the belief
that Proverbs contains
conventional wisdom, spelling out actions which
will help the average
person live a successful life. An orderly world is
assumed, along with a
hard-and-fast doctrine of retribution which may be
expressed either forensically
or dynamistically. Job and Qoheleth are
8 Stated by Eliphaz, 5:17; and by Elihu,
33:12-15; 36:9-12, 15.
284
usually presented as
reactions against the dogmatism of the superficial
views of Proverbs.9
Typical of this position is the claim of superficiality
made by Gottwald, that
the book of Proverbs has very little to offer.10
Some of these assumptions needed to be reassessed and my
study has
brought out certain
conclusions. First, we concluded that Proverbs does not
present a world view
that borders on deism. Nor does it espouse "order" as
a principle of
metaphysics to which God is also subject. Those who hold to a
deistic world view in
Proverbs and a mechanistic outworking of order
through the principle
of retribution have often looked to
cept of ma'at for a parallel. However, the
studies of Fox,11 Bostrom,12
Halbe,13 and
Steiert,14 discussed above in chapter two (I.A.1.), have
shown that ma'at should not be read into Israelite
literature. It has been
claimed that ma'at was an impersonal principle of
retribution, but the
study of Miriam
Lichtheim shows it to be a standard to live by, not a
9 See the quote in chapter
two (I.B.) and D. J. A. Clines, Job 1-20,
WBC
vol. 17 (Dallas: Word, 1989), lxi, for Job; and Donald K. Berry, An
Introduction to
Wisdom and Poetry of the Old Testament (
man
& Holman, 1995), 21, 26, 141, 153.
10 N. K. Gottwald, A Light to the Nations (New York:
Harper, 1959),
472,
characterized the book of Proverbs as "generally mediocre as literature,
tedious
as ethics, banal as religion."
11 M. V. Fox, "World
Order and Ma'at: A Crooked Parallel," JANES
23
(1995): 37-48.
12 L. Bostrom, The God of
the Sages (
1990).
13 J. Halbe, "’Altorientalisches
Weltordnungsdenken’ and alttesta-
mentliche
Theologie. Zur Kritik eines Ideologems am Beispiel des israeliti-
schen
Rechts," ZTK 76 (1979): 381-418.
14 F.-J. Steiert, Die Weisheit
burg:
Herder, 1990).
285
mechanism for
retribution.15 As a result of these studies it is no longer
accurate to see a
parallel to ma'at in Proverbs
expressed as an impersonal
mechanism for
retribution.
Secondly, Proverbs is not locked in to dogmatic assertions
of the retri-
bution formula. Given
the results of this study regarding the presence of
the innocent sufferer
in Proverbs it is difficult to retain the generalizations
made by Clines,
The idea of retribution is tied closely to the concept of
order. The "act-
consequence
relationship" was seen by some as a prime factor in this since
one could assume that
"the righteous will prosper, and the wicked will
suffer."
Individual acts held inherent power to bring about reward or
punishment.16
This view should probably be seen as going too far, since it
virtually excluded the
possibility of Yahweh intervening in human
history,17 a
distinctive trait of Yahweh's relationship with
result of this part of
the study (see chapter two) is that the book of Proverbs
is not limited to the
viewpoint of conventional wisdom. It would be fair to
say that Proverbs
contains this viewpoint as well as those which go different
directions. The book
itself cites no single source for wisdom and therefore
draws from a broad
range of wisdom sources, and includes many view
points.
15 M. Lichtheim, Maat in Egyptian Autobiographies and Related
Studies, OBO 120
(Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992).
16 E. g., K. Koch,
"Gibt es ein Vergeltungsdogma im Alten Testa-
ment?"
ZTK 52 (1955): 1-42.
17 See the comments of J.
Barton, "Natural Law and Poetic Justice in
the Old
Testament," JTS 30 (1979): 1-14;
Bostrom, God of the Sages, 109-113.
286
This
study has shown that it is inaccurate to assume that the book of
Proverbs has no
awareness of an innocent sufferer. The righteous do not
always prosper; the
wicked do not always suffer. Hence, criticisms such as
those cited above are
inaccurate. The study conducted in chapters three,
four, and five show
that the sages had a depth of insight that went beyond
what some modern
scholars are willing to grant.18 The purpose of this
study was to analyze
specific areas where innocent suffering can be demon-
strated: parental
suffering, emotional suffering, and suffering due to the
words or deeds of
others, including the legal system.
The study of parental suffering shows that parents are
often subject
to the actions of a
foolish child, who may behave in such a way that society
attributes shame to the
parents for what the child has done, even though
the child is old enough
to make personal choices and be responsible for
those choices. Other
actions include mocking, cursing, and even robbery,
showing that the
suffering of parents may be due to verbal or physical
abuse. These actions
are strongly condemned in the OT and the child who
behaves this way is
called shameful. If the retribution doctrine was as firm
as some have asserted,
one could look in the lives of the parents of the fool,
the mocker, or the
shameful child to find the sin in the life of the parent(s)
which brought this pain
on them. Proverbs is not this superficial. It recog-
nizes that children may
choose to go their own way in spite of the best
upbringing. Proverbs
nowhere implies or states that parents can be blamed
for actions of children
who have chosen to go against Yahweh's Torah.
18 Here again, the quote
from n. 10 above from Gottwald, Light to
the
Nations,
472, should be noted.
287
We
can also observe that from a practical viewpoint divine discipline
though painful, is
motivated by love. This makes interpreting painful cir-
cumstances less rigid.
No longer was every situation of pain and suffering
forced into the mold of
divine anger and wrath, as in the Mesopotamian
world view. The
parental image of Yahweh, springing from the tender
intimacy of family
relationships, allowed
ful realities into a
disciplinary setting, while affirming that the relation-
ship between Yahweh and
Another result of examining the role of Yahweh as divine
parent
shows that Yahweh hurts
over the misfortunes of his children. When
people are abused it is
often called an "abomination to Yahweh," the strong
impact of which is not
always understood by modern readers. The divine
anger over the abuse of
the innocent has been elucidated in this study.
In examining the proverbs which make reference to emotional
suffering we saw a
broad range of situations. One of the most common
causes of emotional
pain was the cares and concerns of everyday survival.
Subsistence living had
its own share of potential problems completely un-
related to a person's
morals. The book of Proverbs can speak of agricul-
tural setbacks without
attributing them to sin in the life of the farmer or his
family. Emotional pain
due to the harsh realities of life is a normal
reaction, not a result
of sin.
Emotional pain is sometimes caused by the actions or words
of others
characterized as fools.
But more often, emotional pain, which we might
288
define as depression,
discouragement, or the like, is seen as a normal part
of life, not the result
of an offended deity or demon, as was the case in
which refer to
emotional suffering show an awareness of victimization.
The sages knew people
might be victims of harsh circumstances that
worked against the
achievement of goals. This sort of problem is portrayed
as the lot of the
ordinary person, with no negative reflection on moral
character. The
situations associated with emotional distress or pain are
"facts of
life." They are portrayed as ordinary but unfortunate circum-
stances that can happen
to anyone.
The sayings addressing more general categories such as
damaging
words, harmful actions
and the legal system, regard the suffering of the
innocent or righteous
as an unfortunate but all too frequent occurrence in
life. In other words,
the proverbs in these categories, along with the others
addressed earlier, do
not automatically ascribe blame to the one who is
suffering.
Proverbs has a lot to say about the legal system and the
fact of inno-
cent suffering. The
most common observation or prohibition is about or
against the false witness
or false accusation. There are also sayings which
speak of bringing
unnecessary lawsuits against others, reversals of justice
where the innocent are
condemned and the criminals acquitted, bribes and
their effect on
justice, fining the righteous, and so forth.
Antisocial and criminal behavior is also recognized by the
sages.
There are examples of
ambushing unsuspecting travelers, plotting harm
289
against a neighbor, and
those who are criminally violent. People like this
are condemned in the
strongest of terms. They often earn the label "abomi-
nation of Yahweh"
(see above). This would have placed them outside the
community as social and
religious outcasts. They merited this scorn be-
cause of their actions
against the innocent and the righteous. And just as
Yahweh reacted in a
parental way to defend the innocent and the defense-
less, those who harm
the innocent are also shown to be punished for
offenses in the legal
and social sphere. They are characterized as perverted
(3:32), and in a case
of exact retribution, Yahweh is said to "mock those who
mock" (3:34).
Yahweh also curses the wicked (3:33) and shames fools (3:35),
showing a strong
response to those who harm the innocent.
Those who were responsible for the origin of the various
sayings in
Proverbs were aware of
situations in which certain people would act outside
the law of the king and
the law of Yahweh to inflict pain and suffering on
the innocent.
One of the purposes in doing a study of this nature is to
reclaim the
book of Proverbs for
practical use. All too often it seems the assumptions of
past scholarship have
asserted that the book is superficial and of little
value. All people seem
to be classified in one of two categories which occupy
the extreme ends of the
spectrum: righteous or wicked, wise or fool, the
honored or the shamed,
etc. There is no middle ground where the majority
live, thus some have
cast doubt on the advice offered in Proverbs, calling it
trite, banal and
superficial. Often overlooked in making these assertions is
the role of poetry in
formulating these sayings, especially those of an anti-
290
thetic nature. The
classification of all people into one of two categories is
due more to the
structure of Hebrew poetry than a superficial world view on
the part of the sages.
It is my belief that the wisdom movement in ancient
the existence of
proverbs and sayings such as those found in this study in
chapters three, four,
and five shows this beyond doubt.
An important advance made in this study is the delineation
of poems
or poetic pieces within
the book of Proverbs, especially outside of chapters 1
through 9. These poetic
pieces have often shown a theological basis. This
conclusion is unusual
in Proverbs studies since very few scholars in the
past have allowed the
book to function as a theological work. This current
study has shown it to
be aware of Yahweh at work in the world and in the
lives of people. Rather
than categorize the book of Proverbs as a loosely
joined series of
observations on "wordly wisdom" or "advice on how to live"
it
is a book founded upon
the relationship with Yahweh. It was common
among some scholars to
refer to proverbs as "secular" if they lacked a divine
reference, and a
mechanical operation was seen to function in bringing
about retribution if
retribution was called for in the saying in question. It
was claimed that this
type of proverb antedated those which are theologi-
cal.19 There
remains no more reason to draw a distinction between
"secular" and
"religious" sayings, since these artificial designations did not
exist in ancient
19 See, e. g., R. B. Y.
Scott, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, AB
vol. 18 (Garden
City:
Doubleday & Co., 1965), xxv-xl; G. von Rad, Wisdom in Israel (
SCM, 1972), 53-73.
291
from one-line
statements to couplets, and then to multi-line essays.20 The
conclusion I have
reached is that it is no longer possible to read the
individual proverbs in
isolation and demand that they be viewed as develop-
ments along an
evolutionary continuum which was originally secular,
with the divine
references being added later.
It is my hope that this dissertation will be a springboard
for others to
study these matters in
further detail, and that it will be found useful for
both scholarly and
practical examinations of the book of Proverbs,
20 As seen in O. Eissfeldt, Der Maschal in Alten Testament, BZAW
24
(Geissen: Topelmann, 1913); W. O. E. Oesterley, The Book of Proverbs
(London:
Methuen, 1929), xii-xvii; and more recently C. Westermann, Roots
of Wisdom: The
Oldest Proverbs of
Charles (Louisville:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1995).
292
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CIRRICULUM
VITAE
Daniel
P. Bricker
1725
N. Sierra Bonita
(626)
797-3866
e-mail:
DB21@aol.com
CAREER GOAL
To serve God wherever I may
be called, and to help
prepare people for the
ministry by classroom
instruction, scholarly
research, and writing.
EDUCATION
Ph.D. Fuller
Theological Seminary, 1998
Major: Old Testament
Minor: New Testament
Dissertation Title:
"The Innocent Sufferer in the Book of
Proverbs"
M.Div. Talbot Theological Seminary, 1980
(now Talbot
B.A. Moody
Bible Institute, 1977
Major: Bible/Theology
Diploma
1972
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
Teaching
Assistant to Dr. Francis I. Andersen, Fuller Theological
Seminary, 1995-1997.
Teaching
Assistant to Prof. James Butler, Fuller Theological
Seminary, 1994-1995.
Teaching
Assistant to Dr. David A. Hubbard, Fuller Theological
Seminary, 1989-1993.
Teacher/Coach,
318
Instructor, Community
Bible Institute,
PROFESSIONAL
AFFILIATIONS
Evangelical Theological Society
Society of Biblical Literature
PUBLICATIONS
"The Doctrine of
the '
(1995): 501-517.
Review of The Book of Proverbs: A Survey of Modern
Study by R. N.
Whybray, in JETS,
40 (1997): 316-318.
MINISTRY EXPERIENCE
Teacher, Adult Bible
Fellowship classes, Grace Church of LaVerne,
Teacher, Adult Bible Fellowship
classes, Bethany Church, Sierra
Teacher, Adult Bible
Fellowship classes, board member, usher,
Associate Pastor,
Intern in the High
School Dept.,
Seminary), 1979.
Youth Minister,
attending Moody Bible Institute), 1976-1977.
Youth Minister,
319
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