activity have often been slighter than in Europe, and therefore harder to detect and to separate from other factors such as climate. E. T. Burden, J. H. McAndrews, and G. Norris (1986) succeeded in showing the vegetation changes caused first by Native Americans and then by European settlers (characterized by the presence of Plantago lanceolata, an alien in North America), in Ontario, canada.

Other parts of the world have been less intensively studied. In Central America, D. J. Rue (1987) has conducted archaeologically oriented palynology, and others have done so elsewhere; for example, R. L. Clark (1983) in Australia, N. Fuji (1990) in japan, and Y. V. Kuzmin (1992) in eastern russia. Although there are many other pollen results from different parts of the world, only few of them have sufficient detail with regard to data and chronology to be very useful for archaeological research.

Pollen Analyses of Wet Archaeological Deposits

K. Bertsch (1926) pioneered on-site archaeological applications of pollen analysis in Germany, and H. Harri (1929) did so in switzerland on waterlogged lake shore settlements. This kind of work has been done by a few other researchers, such as W. Beijerinck (1931), who carried out on-site studies of settlement mounds (terpen) in the netherlands that included pollen analyses.

Many of the later developments have been made by researchers concentrating on one particular aspect of archaeological palynology in a particular region. Where archaeological deposits were wet enough for good pollen preservation, pollen analysis could be done on the occupation deposits themselves, as in the case of occupation mounds in northern Germany (Korber-Grohne 1967).

Further work has been done on lakeshore settlements around the Alps, which provide wet sediments closely linked with the occupation of the sites. At Seeberg-Burgaschisee-Sud, one pollen diagram was obtained from a sediment profile going through the archaeological occupation layer itself, and others were obtained from profiles through natural deposits at increasing distances from the settlement, thus tracing the decreasing effects of occupation at increasing distances from the site itself (Welten 1967). This site also provided rare evidence of leafy branches having been brought to the site for fodder, evidence obtained from pollen records of plants that are in flower when the leaves are fully developed such as Tilia (lime), Acer (maple), and Hedera (ivy).

Wet archaeological sediments have also been studied from deposits from wells (Dauber, Fietz, and Lang 1955; Firbas 1930), ditches, etc., at otherwise dry archaeological sites. Coprolites (fecal remains), mostly from dogs, have been analyzed in Europe (Paap 1976) along with a number of other archaeological materials (Greig 1982), including human feces (Knights, Dickson, Dickson, and Breeze 1983).

Waterlogged archaeological deposits in which pollen is preserved often also contain other remains such as the seeds of plants, remains of insects, and eggs of parasitic worms. The study of a range of biological remains from a particular deposit can provide complementary results on past environments, for example the research on Lindow Man, a prehistoric bog body found in Cheshire, in England (Stead, Bourke, and Brothwell 1986).

Pollen Analyses of Dry Archaeological Deposits

Certain soil conditions can preserve pollen. Acid soils, for example, inhibit the processes of decay. Some archaeological features such as burial mounds or structures built from turf sod have buried ancient soil surfaces together with the preserved pollen content. Such soil pollen has been extensively studied in Britain by G. W. Dimbleby (1962) and in the Netherlands by H. T. Waterbolk (1950) and by A. J. Havinga (1963).

Cave sediments have been studied by M. van Campo and andré leroi-gourhan (1956) as well as a number of other workers in France. Some archaeological objects may themselves contain pollen and even contribute to its preservation by the presence of metal corrosion products, for example, the remains of honey or mead in a bronze container found in southern Germany and studied by U. Korber-Grohne (1985).