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that would normally deteriorate, such as wood, basketry, cordage, and shell. Pueblo Bonito is the most studied of sixteen great towns built in the Pueblo III era.

Danielle Greene

Pumpelly, Raphael

(1837–1923)

Raphael Pumpelly was born in canada, lived in the United States, and studied to be a mining engineer in Freiberg, Germany. In 1859 he returned to the United States to mine silver in Arizona, and in 1861 he went to San Francisco where he was appointed geologist for the Japanese government. When this job finished in japan in 1863, Pumpelly traveled to china and then, in 1865, made his way overland to Europe via central Asia and Siberia.

Pumpelly returned to the United States in 1869 and began to explore the copper and iron deposits of Michigan; in 1871, he became that state’s state geologist. Ill-health caused him to resign, and he returned to the eastern states. In 1884, he began working for the New England Division of the U.S. Geological Survey under john wesley powell. In 1903, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., hired him to organize and conduct expeditions to central Asia to look for prehistoric sites and evidence of climatic changes. His excavation of the site of Anau in Russian Turkistan led Pumpelly to propose an “oasis theory” for the origins of food production during the Neolithic period. This theory was based on the fact that as the Near East became drier after the last Ice Age, its hunter-gatherers were forced to group around water sources and domesticate wild animals and crops in order to survive. sir grafton elliot smith, harold john edward peake, and herbert j. fleure popularized this theory during the two decades after Pumpelly’s death, and vere gordon childe was especially influenced by it.

Tim Murray

Putnam, Frederic Ward

(1839–1915)

After early training under Henry Wheatland at the Essex Institute in Salem, Massachusetts, Frederic Ward Putnam studied with Louis Agassiz and Asa Gray at Harvard University. After the revolt of Agassiz’s students in 1863, Putnam returned to Salem, where he had been born, and founded and published The American Naturalist, directed the new (1868) Peabody Academy of Science, and pursued a career in ichthyology and herpetology.

Upon the death of Jeffries Wyman in 1874, Putnam returned to Cambridge, Massachusetts, as director and curator of the peabody museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard. He became Peabody Professor of Anthropology as well in 1887, and he held all three positions until retirement in 1909. He served as permanent secretary of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) from 1873 to 1898 and president of AAAS from 1898 to 1899. He was a founding member of the archaeological institute of america in 1879 and was largely responsible for its early work in the Western Hemisphere. From 1891 to 1894, he served as chief of the Department of Ethnology of the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, directing the work of anthropologists Franz Boas, Alice C. Fletcher, Zelia Nuttall, Marshall Saville, George Byron Gordon, George A. Dorsey, Warren K. Moorehead, and many others. From 1894 to 1903, he served as curator of anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. He and Boas supervised the Jesup North Pacific Expedition and the Hyde expeditions to the American Southwest in the late nineteenth century. In