often they are limited in their range of subject matter), which means that much prejudice still remains concerning the archaeology of this period. For example, in Belgian-Dutch bibliographical reviews, archaeology is included only up to the ninth century a.d. In many countries, medieval archaeology refers only to the later Middle Ages, though gradually the term medieval is being applied to both early and late periods.

The development of early and later medieval archaeology needs to be distinguished given the diverse attitudes to each held in the past. Different traditions developed in each country, often related to the relative visibility of remains and the associations of structures and artifacts with the development of nation states and national identities, although sometimes traditions have been shaped by the influence of particular individuals and their concerns. Nevertheless, each subject area can be followed through a series of phases that, with roughly the same chronologies, can be traced across much of Europe.

Early Descriptions and Investigations

Medieval archaeology in one sense began in the Middle Ages when excavations were made to recover the physical remains and associated belongings of saints, although both the methods and motivations would be alien to archaeologists today. Most early antiquarian records deal with prehistoric and Roman antiquities, but some early medieval material was noted. In England, the works of John Leland, william camden, and william stukeley all included a small amount of medieval ecclesiastical material. Scandinavian scholars, including Henrik Rantzau, johan bure, and ole worm, recorded runestones and burial monuments.

One of the most notable discoveries was that of the Frankish King Childeric’s grave, found in 1653 in Tournai, Belgium, at the church of St. Brice. A range of artifacts, including the king’s seal ring, were recovered and published by Jean-Jacob Chifflet in 1655. Unfortunately, much of the material was stolen in 1831 and has never been recovered. It was in the eighteenth and the first part of the nineteenth century that medieval archaeological remains became of increasing interest, although the period of the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century encouraged an emphasis on classical ruins at the expense of those from the Middle Ages.

In early medieval archaeology, the focus was on the recovery of grave goods, largely from chance discoveries of unmarked cemeteries on the Continent, and recovery was sometimes followed by more systematic digging. Barrows attracted the attention of antiquarians, and while many had prehistoric origins, some were early medieval in date and others had been reused at that time and contained early medieval burials. Some of the earliest excavations conducted with some scientific rigor were those by the antiquarian and scholar Professor Olaf Rudbeck at Old Uppsala, sweden, in the late-seventeenth century. In England during the early eighteenth century Saxon barrows were unearthed in Kent; at the time they were considered casualties of Caesar’s invasion. Later in the century the antiquarians Bryan Faussett and James Douglass were active in excavating barrows and tumuli; they also kept excellent records, and their archives and some finds are now in British museums. Work in Wiltshire was subsequently carried out in style by william cunnington and richard colt hoare.

With the rise of the Romantic movement during the early nineteenth century, medieval ruins attracted much more attention than ever before, although this attention did not often lead to greater study. Rather, the neglected structures were to create an impact and stir the emotions, and some were modified by additions or selective demolition to heighten their effect, although some clearance of rubble did take place, as with the Cistercian abbeys of Tintern in Wales and Fountains in England. This increased awareness did lead to more serious research in some cases, such as the discovery of architectural fragments and grave slabs, and made such sites well known to subsequent generations. More obviously, archaeological interest relating to later medieval evidence at this time was also engaged with regard to remains, either ruins or buildings, still in use. In denmark, churches were recorded by N.L. Høyen, and in Sweden, P. Härnquist made a study of a Franciscan convent before a new building was constructed on