edges, but such investigations did not begin in earnest until the second half of the nineteenth century. Gravel terraces were formed from water-laid sediments and contained a stratigraphic record of artifacts and animal bones, but this record was not as substantial as that found in caves (Sackett 2000).

A series of investigations in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries reported the association of human remains or artifacts with the remains of extinct animals, but in each case doubts were cast on the stratigraphic integrity of the finds since they derived from limestone caves known to be affected by water movement. Thus, after French archaeologist Torunal discovered human bones associated with the bones of extinct animals at Grotte de Bize (a cave in southwest France) his colleague Serres claimed that both sets of bones were in the same state of preservation, but a committee led by Cuvier that evaluated the finds dismissed the suggestion. Belgian archaeologist philippe schmerling, excavating a number of caves near Liege in Belgium, uncovered human remains as well as many artifacts associated with rhinoceros and mammoth bones, but reports of these finds were not taken seriously by contemporary scholars (Daniel 1975, 33–35; Sackett 2000).

At kent’s cavern in southern England, excavated by amateur archaeologist John MacEnery between 1825 and 1829, artifacts were discovered associated with rhinoceros remains beneath a stalagmite floor. At first MacEnery concluded that the associations were real, thereby demonstrating human antiquity, but after discussions with Buckland he became convinced that they were the result of postdepositional admixture (Grayson 1983, 75–76). Buckland himself sought an explanation for human remains from Goats’ Hole Cave in Paviland (England) that would enable him to associate both the human remains and the artifacts he found with the Roman-British period (Daniel 1975, 37; Grayson 1983, 67).

The Establishment of High Human Antiquity

Although the number of discoveries of artifacts associated with bones of extinct animals continued to mount, the demonstration of high human antiquity required that the stratigraphic integrity of deposits be accepted. This first occurred at two locations: in the Somme gravel terraces in northern France and at brixham cave in England. From 1837 onward, inspired by the earlier studies of French archaeologist Picard, jacques boucher de perthes collected artifacts and the bones of extinct animals from the Somme River gravels. He published his findings in Antiquités celtiques et antédiluviennes in 1847, describing the stratigraphic position and integrity of his discoveries (Daniel 1975, 58; Grayson 1983, 119). However, intertwined with his stratigraphic observations were a range of speculative assertions that did little to further the acceptance of his views by his contemporaries. He assigned symbolic significance to many of the artifacts he discovered and interpreted them all according to a catastrophist theory that would have been more at home in the late eighteenth century than in the 1840s (Grayson 1983, 126; Sackett 2000).

In 1858, a grant was given to amateur geologist william pengelly to excavate the newly discovered cave at Brixham in search of paleontological samples. The project was supervised by a group of eminent British geologists: joseph prestwich, Lyell, hugh falconer, Richard Owen, and R. Godwin-Austen. Excavations revealed the bones of extinct animals, but unexpectedly, thirty-six artifacts were also recovered beneath a stalagmitic layer three to eight inches thick. Their discovery sparked a variety of explanations, but these were quickly unified as the result of a visit by Falconer to the sites of Boucher de Perthes in 1858. Impressed by what he saw at the Somme excavations, Falconer encouraged Lyell, Prestwich, and Godwin-Austin, together with the antiquarian Henry Flower and sir john evans, to also visit the sites of Boucher de Perthes. As a result of these visits, Prestwich and Evans were able to photograph a hand-axe in situ, associated with the bones of extinct animals at st. acheul in northern France (Daniel 1975, 58; Grayson 1983, 172–176; Sackett 2000).

In 1859, Prestwich read a paper to the Royal Society recalling Frere’s work at Hoxne and describing how Pengelly’s work at Brixham and