with detailed tables. His other important works are Wenedowie w zrodlach historycznych i w swietle kartografii przedhistorycznej (1937; Weneds in Historical Sources and in the Light of Prehistoric Cartography) and Zarys pradziejow Polski poludniowo-wschodniej (1939; Prehistory of South-East Poland, an Outline).

Kozłowski’s scientific activities are characterized by the collection of different kinds of data and by the formulation of generalizations regarding particular periods, areas, and problems. These two characteristics were important features of Polish archaeology during the first half of the twentieth century and his work is still stimulating for later generations of Polish archaeologists. He introduced the results of European archaeological research on relative chronology into the milieu of Polish archaeology, and he regarded a typological-comparative method as fundamental for archaeology. Kozłowski emphasized the necessity of withdrawing from simple nineteenth-century evolutionism, with its linear perception of the development of cultural phenomena. He noticed the importance of environmental factors and diffusion in shaping the development of prehistoric communities, mainly their migration. He carried out many large-scale excavations and numerous field surveys, and his excavations, modern for their time, were characterized by methodical correctness and complexity.

Kozłowski was active politically. In the 1930s he was minister for agriculture and agricultural reforms, undersecretary in the Ministry of Finance, and prime minister of the Polish government from 1933 to 1934.

Arkadiusz Marciniak

Kromdraai

Kromdraai is a South African site containing evidence of early hominids. In 1938, R. Broom recovered a hominid from the site and named it Paranthropus Robustus—it is now thought to be an australopithecine. The site was reexcavated by C.K. Brain between 1955 and 1956 and by Elizabeth Vrba between 1977 and 1985. A total of thirteen hominid fossils have been recovered.

Tim Murray

See also

Africa, South, Prehistory

Krukowski, Stefan

(1890–1982)

Stefan Krukowski was an influential Polish archaeologist and a great personality. His only teacher of prehistory was Erazm Majewski, and he never completed any formal studies in archaeology, being completely self-taught. He was commissioned to conduct his first fieldwork by Majewski in 1908. In 1911, he published his first paper, on studies carried out in the Kielce district. In 1914, he started working in the anthropology workshop of the Warsaw Scientific Society, and this event marked the beginning of his almost total devotion to the Stone Age. At the same time, he also began important studies of the caves in the Cracow-Wielun range, such as Okiennik Cave. During World War I, he continued his research in Russia, in the Caucasus, on the Paleolithic site of kostenki.

Krukowski’s professional career and research were especially intense between 1919 and 1939. From 1918 to 1925, he worked in the prehistory section of the Institute of Anthropological Studies of the Warsaw Scientific Society. At the same time, he was keeper of archaeological monuments for the southern Warsaw district until 1928, and in that year he became a curator in the newly founded State Archaeological Museum in Warsaw. His research focused on the development of proper scientific methods applicable both in fieldwork and in interpretation, and his work was closely associated with the natural sciences, primarily geology.

Of great importance was his collaborations with the outstanding geologist Jan Samsonowicz. Their work led to the discovery of a unique mine of striped flint in krzemionki opatowskie in 1922, shallow mines of chocolate-colored flint near Lysogory, and grey-white spotted flint in Swieciechow near Annopol. In 1928, he took up the study and protection of the mine in Krzemionki Opatowskie, and in 1939, he published Krzemionki Opatowskie, a research questionnaire in which the author described the standard features of the mine such as the mining field, shafts, underground headings, dumps, and mining tools. He also discussed the organization of the work, the spatial relations between mines and the settlements they were connected to, and the social aspects of the distribution of flint axes.