The capture of York by the Vikings was quick, almost effortless, and barely noted by historians of the time. Typically Viking raids were planned to coincide with the Christian calendar during feast days. York was invaded November 1, which probably meant a great deal of goods, money, and slaves were taken. A fort was most likely built soon after, probably within or near the wall of the old Roman city. The material record of the Vikings includes stone carving, metal work, weaponry, coinage, houses, temples, and graves.

Archaeological evidence shows the Vikings to be very advanced in the manufacture of arms and jewelry as well as in shipbuilding. The soldier camps they built showed the ability to mobilize resources. Travels in the far north meant coping with and conquering hostile environmental elements. Vikings were skilled in commerce and trade, and brought with them a vernacular literature. Viking sagas tell of family, feuds, the great eleventh and twelfth century kings, and their voyages.

E. T. Leeds laid the groundwork for the study of archaeology with his 1913 publication surveying the holdings of museums across England and explaining the fundamentals of early archaeological method and theory. His work confirmed that some settlements predate the written record, and his observations on museum collections spurred further research and reappraisals. He pioneered excavation methods that brought in evidence beyond grave goods alone.

Excavation in York begun by P. Addyman in 1972 focused on military and defense structures of the Roman period a.d. 71 to 400. Fifth-century Roman occupation evidence comes from the headquarters building and the bath house. Late fourth century severe flooding destroyed many of the harbor facilities. Little archaeological evidence exists for the fifth and sixth centuries, considered a dark age in York. The Anglo-Saxons continued a settlement outside the fortress and eighth- and ninth-century materials found in concentration are domestic. Palliser and Morris suggest the evidence comes from a church complex.

Deposits in the Coppergate area of York are evidence of Viking occupation. Several hundred pottery fragments in early Viking layers suggest continued pottery production. Four gold coins of the 640s suggest a trading center that has not been confirmed. Some areas have not been excavated because they have not been rebuilt since the eighteenth century.

Archaeology of York also includes study of Bronze brooches, pottery, coins, and faunal remains; ongoing research includes Scandinavia and northwest Europe with the British Isles as a whole region. East of the Roman fortress craft finds have been excavated indicating work with leather; cobbling; working of jet, amber, iron, lead, copper alloy, silver, and gold; glassworking; wood lathe; bone and antler work; textile making and dyeing; and trade evidence. By a.d. 900 the pattern of buildings was set. Cultural remains also show the strong influence of the Viking invaders through language, place names, a style of open government used in Iceland, and the jury system. Viking influence ranged from attackers to settlers, storytellers, and craftsmen. In York the Jorvik Viking Center was opened in 1984 to display Danish period artifacts.

Danielle Greene

See also

Medieval Archaeology in Europe; Novgorod

References

Crabtree, Pam J., and Kathleen Ryan, eds. 1991. Animal Use and Culture Change. Philadelphia: masca, University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

Karkov, Catherine E. 1999. The Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England: Basic Readings. New York: Garland.

Leeds, E. Thurlow. 1913. The Archaeology of the Anglo-Saxon Settlements. Reprint 1970. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Smyth, Alfred P. 1977. Scandinavian Kings in the British Isles 850–880. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Smyth, Alfred P. 1975. Scandinavian York and Dublin: The History and Archaeology of Two Related Viking Kingdoms. Dublin: Templekieran Press.

Snyder, Christopher A. 1996. Sub-Roman Britain (AD 400–600): A Gazetteer of Sites. Oxford: Tempus Reparatum.