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Spain

The development of archaeology in the territory of the Spanish state has been marked by the long history (beginning in the fifteenth century) of that state’s unity and by the discipline’s strong dependence on state institutions. The latter factor enables us to link the general situation in Spain to the trajectory of archaeological practice in its various historical subdivisions (prehistoric, proto-historic, classical, medieval, American, Oriental). Thus, the history of Spanish archaeology can contribute to the debate on scientific neutrality by demonstrating the interdependence between science and society in a particular case.

The intellectual currents that marked Spanish archaeology’s development are analogous to those in other European countries (Suarez Otero 1993, 331): (1) the antiquarianism and learning that largely inspired classical archaeology from the Renaissance to the nineteenth century; (2) the enlightened concern, linked with the natural sciences, with the antiquity of humanity and its early cultures that led to the origin of prehistoric archaeology in the last third of the nineteenth century, and (3) the ideologically motivated search for, and celebration of, national identity (Gilman 1988, 47–50) that influenced all archaeological practice—more specifically, medieval (Salvatierra 1990, 71–72) and proto-historic (Ruiz Zapatero 1993a, 40)—as well as Spanish archaeological research abroad. In all these instances, the goals of research shift from the universal to the particular.

Preliminaries: Antiquarianism from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries

During the classical period and throughout the Middle Ages, there were treasures (war booty, votive offerings) but no collections (Barril 1993, 39–42), but in the fifteenth century, collections acquired a scientific and educational value linked to humanism. The Greek and Roman world, natural wonders, and objects brought from the New World were at the center of attention. In Spain, a prominent collector was Cardinal Mendoza, counselor to the Catholic kings.

In the sixteenth century, Charles I and Philip II encouraged collecting, so the duke of Villahermosa wrote a treatise on Roman religion based on Roman antiquities, and other courtiers opened their collections to scholars such as Lucio Marinero Siculo, Ambrosio de Morales, and Antonio Agustín (sometimes dubbed the “first Spanish archaeologists”). In the seventeenth century, connections with foreign scientific circles to exchange, borrow, and acquire pieces became very important.

Those are the roots of eighteenth-century collecting. The monarchy and the enlightened aristocracy used archaeology to legitimize and give prestige to their power, to justify reforms (Mora 1991, 31), and to display and reinforce Spain’s foreign image, which had been brought into question by other European powers.

This archaeology consisted of branches of classical erudition (epigraphy, numismatics, iconography, topography, mythology) that were secondary to literary sources. The monarchy created gabinetes de antigüedades y de historia natural (“cabinets of antiquities and natural history,” which included archaeological remains), libraries, and academies. It financed archaeological excavations, scientific expeditions (Malaespina in 1789), and “literary journeys” inside the country itself. In addition, it gave legal protection