and its political and nationalist motivations help to explain its popularity during the Soviet period. Paradoxically, it now receives new support—from Ukrainian ideologists.

Progressivism

The three-age system made its way into Russia, as in the rest of Europe, from Scandinavia. For its establishment, it was necessary to elaborate on the Enlightenment idea of progress that declared that the contemporary was a higher cultural state than the ancient classic ideal. This idea was in harmony with the reforms of Czar Peter the Great, whose ideals were contemporary Europe and European civilization. Thus, as distinct from Germany, in Russia there was fertile soil for the idea of progress. In the middle of the nineteenth century, a series of translations (including the writing of Danish archaeologist jens jacob worsaae) acquainted Russian archaeologists with the achievements of Scandinavian progressivists. In 1881, the leader of Russian archaeologists, Count Uvarov, based his book Archaeology: The Stone Age on the three-age system. Thus, the basis for archaeological periodization was introduced.

The corresponding ethnographic periodization in three steps (savagery, barbarism, civilization) was merely elaborated by American anthropologist lewis henry morgan in the evolutionary spirit. However, it had been advanced earlier by Vedel-Simonsen, and in his version it was properly a progressivist scheme and was adapted by Fredrich Engels into the basics of Marxist revolutionary ideology.

Evolutionism

Created in England, France, and Sweden, archaeological evolutionism became known in Russia comparably early—through reviews, surveys, expositions, and, later, translations of Lubbock and gabriel de mortillet’s work. It had an impact on Russian ethnography but little impact on Russian archaeology. Russian archaeologists were more conservative than Russian ethnographers (some of whom were deported as revolutionaries), and archaeologists were confused by the connection of archaeological evolutionism with the ideas of Charles Darwin.

The revolutionist periodization of de Mortillet was transferred to Russia by Fedor Volkov, who studied in France, and by his pupil Petr Efimenko, whose fundamental work on the Paleolithic was published in 1934. In that work’s exposition of data, the periodization of the Stone Age was elaborated in the spirit of de Mortillet’s evolutionism at a time when, in France, much of de Mortillet’s approach was being revised by henri breuil and others. Russian archaeologists first learned about the methodological elaborations of Swedish archaeologist oscar montelius in the first volume of Ravdonikas’s History of Primordial Society (1939).

In the first half of 1930s, the theory of stadial development rejected the primacy of the Ursprache (“ancestor language”) as well as the importance of ethnic boundaries and insisted on the mixing, crossing, and fusion of peoples. Nevertheless, it retained the autochthonistic principle of a gradual, slow sojourn of peoples in places. To substantiate the theory, Kruglov and Podgaecky, in their book The Clan Society of East-European Steppes (1935), introduced a correction into the concept of a revolutionary replacement of stages (the break of continuity) by using the concept of “stadial transitions,” i.e., connecting chains or intermediate types, in what was an evident retreat from revolutionary phraseology to evolutionism. Gradual evolutionism began to mark the Irkutsk school of Soviet archaeologists, especially Teploukhov and his pupil Gryaznov. For them, development occurred independently at each place, and an archaeological culture was considered identical to its period.

Anthropogeographism (Paleoethnological Trend)

Anthropogeographism, named after friedrich ratzel’s school of Anthropogeography, rejected the evolutionary aspects of ancient cultures and moved the center of consideration to territorial aspects—development in the space and distribution of culture complexes, which were considered as very steady and unchanging. A large role was given to the interaction of the sciences of man with geography and, in general, with the sciences of the natural environment.

In Russia, this trend developed independently of western anthropogeography and had a