colonies, based on what became known as “the Westminster model constitution,” and British legislation in India served as the basis for the formulation of improved protection of the cultural heritage of that newly independent country.

Over the second half of the twentieth century, there was progressive extension and improvement of heritage legislation. Every year was marked by new or amended laws being passed by national legislatures in at least one country in the world. In addition, work began within the framework of the League of Nations in the interwar years that led to the drafting and adoption in the 1970s of international conventions, under the aegis of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), designed to protect and preserve the cultural heritage. Similar conventions have also been prepared at the regional level, notably by the Council of Europe.

Managers

Legislation is effective only if provision is made for its implementation and for the enforcement of penalties when it is transgressed. The earliest recorded appointments of what today would be known as “heritage managers” were made by Renaissance popes, as in the case of Raphael. There was a continuous policy of restoration and conservation of ancient monuments in Rome, supervised by different commissions and executed by distinguished artists and architects such as Antonio Canova (1757–1822). Similar provisions applied in other cities and states of pre-unification Italy, such as Naples.

A number of European countries followed the same pattern in the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries. In most cases, this began with the appointment of a voluntary commission of experts drawn from the academies and universities and employing architects and conservators on specific contracts. However, these bodies found themselves requiring the services of full-time professional officials as interest in and concern for antiquities grew. The role of architects in the development of heritage management was an important one. In Germany, Karl-Friedrich Schinkel (1781–1841) played a crucial role in the preservation of monuments in the territories of the kingdom of Prussia. He proposed the establishment of a formal organization for this work, but it was not until two years after his death that the first conservator of artistic monuments was appointed. France had anticipated such an appointment, the post of inspector-general of historical monuments in France being created by Louis-Philippe shortly after his accession in 1830. The first such inspector was Ludovic Vitet (1802– 1873), and he was succeeded in 1834 by Prosper Mérimée (1803–1870), better known as the author of Carmen but notable for his intervention to save the Roman and medieval defenses of Carcassonne in southern France.

German conservators such as Schinkel and, in particular, the Bavarian Leo von Klenze (1784–1864) provided professional advice to the new Greek state after 1830. The first general conservator was Kiriakos Pittakis (1798– 1863), and he was assisted by Danish and German architects. In Russia, an Imperial Archaeological Commission was set up in 1859, and soon afterward the country’s first full-time inspector was appointed.

The Scandinavian tradition began with the appointment of Verelius as royal antiquary in 1666. The monuments service grew steadily, and from the nineteenth century onward, it made extensive use of the talents of the leisured, educated middle class (clergymen, teachers, retired army officers) for the surveying and recording activities that spread over the entire country. Denmark did not follow suit until the first decade of the nineteenth century, but work there developed very rapidly, not only in the evolution of museology but also in systematic field survey. jens jacob worsaae (1821–1885), who had worked with Thomsen (whom he succeeded in 1865) at the National Museum, was appointed inspector-general of antiquities in Denmark by the king in 1847, and he traveled over the entire country in the years that followed recording monuments of all kinds. He built up a professional staff from 1865 onward, and in 1873 began the systematic survey of all the field monuments in Denmark, with voluntary assistance. This work was to continue for some fifty years, and the field reports,