in other periods and other regions: Mesopotamia, Egypt, and, of course, the Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia and the Caribbean. Many of these scholars continued philological pursuits and were hardly interested in field archaeology, but several philologists have been and are active in excavation and survey programs.

In the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia), an early pioneer was eugene dubois (1858– 1940), a physician and paleontologist who discovered the remains of Homo erectus (Pithecanthropus) on Java in 1891. Although work on these protohumans continues (by C. ter Haar, G.H.R. von Koenigswald, H.R. van Heekeren, and G.-J. Bartstra), the main interest of colonial archaeologists has been in the monumental remains of the classical Hindu period, most of them on Java (the Borobudur complex, the temples at Prambanan, etc.). These scholars came up with remarkably modern ideas on restoration as early as the 1910s and 1920s (especially N.J. Krom and Th. Van Erp; Bernet Kempers 1978). Some members of the Colonial Antiquities Service were sent to the Netherlands to be trained by Van Giffen (notably W.J.A. Willems and P.V. van Stein Callenfels), and they almost inevitably returned with prehistoric interests: for example, megaliths and the Hoabinh shell heaps. The Dutch did not set up a training program for prospective indigenous archaeologists.

After World War II and after Indonesian independence in 1949, the Archaeological Service of the Indonesian Republic was run by a Dutch planter and amateur archaeologist, H.R. van Heekeren, and he was succeeded by his Indonesian assistant and trainee, R.P. Soejono. Dutch interest in the archaeology of Indonesia has never been great. Bartstra of the University of Groningen has taken over the Paleolithic interests of Van Heekeren and has been cooperating with Soejono on the Pleistocene hominids in the archipelago since the 1970s.

In the Caribbean, the ethnologist J.P.B. de Josselin de Jong worked on Amerindian prehistory and did some small excavations on the islands of Aruba and Curaçao. Since the 1970s, was a more regular interest in the past of these Dutch colonies (including Surinam) on the part of archaeologists from Leiden University—E. Boerstra, A.H. Versteeg, C. Hofman, M. Hoogiand, each having had appropriate field training by Modderman.

Of the Dutch archaeologists who have been active in the Middle East, the best known is perhaps henri frankfort (1897–1954), an international figure who was born in Amsterdam. He worked with sir william matthew flinders petrie at the British School in Athens and with J.H. Breasted at the Chicago oriental institute, where he organized the multidisciplinary Diyala project in Iraq while simultaneously holding a professorship of Middle Eastern archaeology at the University of Amsterdam (1932–1939). Later, Frankfort went to the Warburg Institute in London to become professor of the history of preclassical antiquity at London University.

Another well-known name in Mesopotamian archaeology is M.N. van Loon, who also worked in the Chicago Oriental Institute before he was appointed professor in Amsterdam (1972–1987). Excavations at Tell Hammam in Syria are continued by D.J.W. Meijer, who presently works at Leiden. H.J. Franken, a theologian turned archaeologist, worked in Palestine at Deir Alla (where work is now carried on by G. van der Kooij). Franken also collaborated with kathleen kenyon at Jericho and Jerusalem and contributed to both the recording and the interpretation of tell stratigraphy and pottery studies by employing artisan potters in his institute. The Groningen BAI has also conducted investigations in this region (H. T. Waterbolk at Bouqras in Syria), as has the RMO (P. M.M.G. Akkermans at Tell Sabi Abyad in Syria; H. Schneider in Egypt).

Conclusions

This account has made it clear that Dutch archaeology is not primarily the development of Van Giffen’s ideas but, rather, that he was part of an important phase of an ongoing tradition. From the very beginning of academic archaeology, even from the first recorded excavation in the Netherlands (Titia Brongersma and Ludolf Smids at the Borger megalith grave in 1685), auxiliary sciences have systematically been called on to aid in or back up interpretation.