were active, Kuipers was in the Department of the Interior when Van Giffen and Holwerda had their clashes (1914–1920). Kuipers subsequently went to the Department of Education and Science where Van Giffen’s succession to Holwerda was thwarted. After World War II, Kuipers was director of archaeology and nature preservation until 1952, the period when decisions concerning the foundation and scope of Van Giffen’s ROB were made. It is difficult to gauge Kuipers’s influence, for in the years 1939–1949, J.K. van der Haagen was head of his department, and the latter is generally credited with the decisive measures that led to the foundation of the State Service for Archaeological Investigations. With regard to van der Haagen, Kuipers said: “He wanted to centralize archaeological management, and to this end he drew up a whole series of legislations… Leiden [was to be] the hub” (Sarfatij 1972).

Carl W. Vollgraff (1876–1968) studied classical arts at the University of Brussels in Belgium and defended his thesis there in 1901. He was soon appointed private lecturer in Greek and Roman mythology at the University of Utrecht and started excavations in Greece that continued until 1930. He was appointed professor at Utrecht University in 1917 and may be considered “the father” of Dutch classical archaeology. Among his students, H.G. Beyen, C.H.E. Haspels, and G.A.S. Snijder need to be mentioned. They, in turn, tutored most of the presently active classical archaeologists. Vollgraff also participated in Van Giffen’s excavations of the Roman core of the city of Utrecht (1934–1938), and the results were published jointly. Vollgraff retired in 1948.

Until the 1970s, there was no real tradition of fieldwork in Dutch classical archaeology. In the years before the prehistoric institutes were established, before archaeology became differentiated into historic and prehistoric branches, students from classical arts departments were sometimes interested in classical (or Egyptian, or Mesopotamian, or biblical, or Indonesian) archaeology. One of them, A.W. Byvanck (1884–1970), started out as an art historian of Greek antiquity, and for a time he was keeper at the Museum Meermanno-Westrianum in the Hague. After he ascended to the chair of archaeology and ancient history in Leiden in 1922, he also studied Roman and Byzantine art. Gradually, Byvanck extended his interest toward local archaeology as well, and he was well acquainted with Van Giffen, whom he met in the State Committee for Archaeology. In 1941, Byvanck published a popular synthesis of Dutch archaeology. After the war, when Leiden University was reopened, a chair of archaeology was established separate from that of ancient history and Byvanck was appointed to it.

Hendrik G. Beyen (1901–1965) is a well-known Dutch classical archaeologist. From an artistic family, he studied ancient art with Vollgraff in Utrecht and wrote a dissertation on mural art in pompeii and herculaneum (1928). He became the first professor of classical archaeology at Groningen University (1951), with the support of Van Giffen. In 1954, Beyen transferred to Leiden (succeeding Byvanck) but retired in 1964. His short scientific life was devoted to art history, specifically in the realm of classical mural painting, and he was the first to describe the successive styles of Roman wall painting in Pompeii. After Beyen’s retirement, his work was continued by his students W.J. Th. Peters and F.L. Bastet. Architectural studies by members of the Dutch School in Rome (Th. Heres, E. Moormann) and by H. Geertman at Leiden may ultimately be credited to Beyen’s leadership. Organizationally, Beyen and the RMO director A. Klasens succeeded in the establishment of an Institute of Prehistory at Leiden University in 1962; the institute was directed by P.J.R. Modderman, one of Van Giffen’s students.

As far as can be ascertained, Van Giffen and his Groningen successor H.T. Waterbolk, Byvanck, and Beyen at Leiden; the RMO’s director Klasens and his predecessor Van Wijngaarden; W. Glazema (Van Giffen’s successor at the ROB) and W.A. van Es (managing director of the ROB in the 1960s and 1970s) were all on reasonably good terms. However, after the establishment of the ROB along lines inconsistent with Van Giffen’s ideas, and especially after the appointment of Glasbergen to the Amsterdam Institute of Pre- and Proto-history (1956–1979), tensions