Conservation Act) in 1931, which protected ancient remains and sites against damage, removal, and destruction.

The improvement in research, restoration, and recording led to the development of theories and hypotheses regarding the creation; distribution; styles; cultural, social, and religious significance; and history of Indonesia’s antiquities. Bosch argued for the Indonesian people’s greater involvement in the construction of their temples (Bosch 1919), counter to some opinions that Indians were the architects of these buildings and Indonesians only the laborers. These Indonesia-centric theories were supplemented more and more by the views of other scholars (Krom, W.F. Stutterheim, etc.). Other archaeological landmarks of this period include the publication of basic books on the Jago, Singasari, and Penataran monuments by Brandes (1904, 1909); Borobudur by Krom (1920) and Krom and van Erp (1920–1931); and Krom’s work on Hindu-Javanese history (1926; Krom and van Erp 1920–1931) and Hindu-Javanese architecture. There was also growth in scientific archaeological activities when the OD was led by W.F. Stutterheim in 1936, but fieldwork declined owing to a shortage of staff and the economic crisis of the 1930s.

Although institutional and scientific archaeology was productive in Indonesia until the outbreak of World War II in East Asia, only a cadre of Dutch professionals were active in it. The OD was not large, and it was staffed by a core of Dutch archaeologists who worked across extensive regions. Archaeology stagnated in Indonesia during the Japanese occupation and the fight for independence from the netherlands after 1945. Only the technical staff at Prambanan was able to keep on with restoration and excavation during the Japanese occupation.

In 1945, during civil dissidence against the Dutch army, many documents that had been collected in Jakarta since the beginning of archaeological activities in Indonesia (such as archives of photographs, drawings, and books and a collection of research objects) were destroyed or disappeared. In 1947, the Dutch army, which had reoccupied Jakarta, set up and reorganized the OD.

This time the organization had technical branches in Ujung Pandang (South Sulawesi) and Gianyar (Bali). During the period of the struggle for independence, between 1947 and 1949, the prehistorian H.R. van Heekeren excavated in South Sulawesi, particularly at Maros, the cave-painting area, and at Kalumpang, a Neolithic settlement site. During this same period, J.C. Krijgsman was actively involved in the restoration of the ancient Hindu-Buddhist monuments of Bali.

1950–1956

In 1950, the Dinas Purbakala R.I. (Archaeological Service of the Republic of Indonesia) was established, with headquarters in Jakarta and A.J. Bernet Kempers as its head. Technical staff from Ujung Pandang were recalled to reinforce the staff at headquarters, and district offices called Seksi Bangunan Dinas Purbakala R.I. (Building Section of the Archaeological Service of the R.I.) were established. It was clear that the Republic of Indonesia urgently needed more support to become effective archaeologically as its scientific and technical staffs were inadequate.

In 1953, the Dinas Purbakala R.I. was placed under the charge of R. Soekmono, which meant that for the first time in the history of archaeology in Indonesia, the responsibility for Indonesia-wide archaeological work was under the supervision of an Indonesian archaeologist. Dutch archaeologists such as V.R. van Romondt, H.R. van Heekeren, J.G. de Casparis, M.J. van den End-Blom, and J.C. Krijgsman continued to work in Indonesia until 1960. Important work was accomplished in prehistory (Heekeren 1957), the Hindu-Buddhist or classical period (Bernet Kempers 1959), the Islamic period, and epigraphy (Casparis, 1950; Goris,1954).

The last issues of OV (1941–1947, 1948, 1949) were published, and the journal was replaced by Laporan Tahunan Dinas Purbakala [Annual Reports of the Archaeological Service], which was published from 1950 to 1955. These publications contained general descriptions of the activities of the various branches of archaeology. The archaeological journal Amerta, a popular analysis of archaeological research in Indonesia, was also published at this time, and a more scientific