Maglemosians occupied the lowlands of northern Europe, whereas the Tardenoisians had no axes and occupied sandy and hilly regions; the Maglemosians produced some art and made bone tools, whereas the Tardenoisians did neither (J. G.D. Clark 1936). The behavioral view that has replaced this argument derives from work in two main fields: archaeology and ecological anthropology. These will be examined in turn.

Archaeology

The upland-lowland cultural dichotomy came under strain in Britain during the 1960s. Radley and Mellars (1964) pointed out that microliths in the two zones were very similar and that axes were occasionally found in the uplands. On the mainland similar results were published (Geupel 1973; Newell 1973). Most would now see the differences as reflecting behavior and preservation rather than cultural variation. Acid conditions have destroyed bone at the upland sites. Varying proportions of artifacts are found in both upland and lowland areas, and these are thought to reflect varying activities. The rarity of axe/adzes in the uplands probably reflects the thinner woodland in these regions (J. G.D. Clark 1972, 1973; Jacobi 1978; Mellars 1976a).

A second element in the understanding of the Mesolithic was dating. During the 1970s the radiocarbon revolution reached the Mesolithic, and the mainland Mesolithic was divided into three main technological phases. Phase 1 was characterized by a high proportion of obliquely blunted points among the microliths. This is conventionally thought to have started at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary at 10,000 b.p. (see further discussion in later passages). Phase 2 began around 8800 b.p. and was typified by smaller microliths, such as triangular and lanceolate forms. Phase 3 began around 7850 b.p. and was marked by artifacts made on broader blades, among which trapeze-shaped microliths were the most numerous. This phase ended with the appearance of the Neolithic period (for major reviews, see Kozlowski 1975, 1976; Rozoy 1978).

Work in Britain identified an early phase corresponding to phase 1 on the mainland, characterized by the same microlithic forms and ending at the same time; the industries are termed “broad blade.” Britain’s later phase, termed “narrow blade,” was similar to the mainland phase 2. The blade and trapeze industries of mainland phase 3, however, never reached Britain. By the time this phase appeared on the mainland, Britain had been isolated by the rising postglacial sea, and the narrow gap was apparently sufficient to inhibit the spread of trapeze industries (Jacobi 1973, 1976; Mellars 1974, 1976b; Switsur and Jacobi 1979).

A third strand of relevant archaeological work has been spread over a much longer period and concerns organic remains of various kinds. This strand has been important in countering the early view that the Mesolithic was both technologically and artistically impoverished. The formation of peat bogs has led to superb conditions of preservation in some parts of Europe. The bows that shot the microlith-tipped arrows have turned up at several major settlements, including early-Mesolithic Holmegård in Denmark (illustrated in S.H. Andersen and Nielsen 1982, 22) and late-Mesolithic Ageröd V in sweden (Larsson 1983a, figs. 32, 33). Barbed bone and antler points are common; major concentrations were found at Star Carr in England (nearly 200 points, see J.G.D. Clark 1954, figs. 47–64) and at Mosegården III in Denmark (over 300 points, see K. Andersen 1983). At Mosegården III they were found spread across an area about 1,000 by 300 meters, not directly associated with a settlement but on the bed of a former lake. Nearby settlements contain many fish bones, and some of the Mosegården III examples were found point downward, suggesting they were mounted as leisters and lost during fishing (K. Andersen 1983, 155–173). At Star Carr they were found concentrated in just a few square meters at the edge of the settlement, but the settlement produced no fish bones (J. G.D. Clark 1954, fig. 5); this suggests they were cached and intended for use against land mammals and would therefore have been mounted as spears (Legge and Rowley-Conwy 1988, 95).

Larger, more complex fish-catching items are also known. The famous seine from Antrea in Karelia was some 30 meters long and 1.5 meters