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(1832–1904)
General Luigi Palma di Cesnola typifies the rapacious style of mid-nineteenth-century “archaeological” activity in the eastern Mediterranean. He had a varied and adventurous life, which included service in the American Civil War. Later, while resident in cyprus between 1865 and 1875 (and accredited as both the U.S. and the Russian consul), he arranged excavations at numerous sites and opened many thousands of Bronze and Iron Age tombs in the search for antiquities. The bulk of his vast collection of was eventually acquired by the Metropolitan Museum in New York City, and in return, Cesnola was appointed director of the museum in 1879. His methods both in the field and at the museum led to much criticism, especially regarding his practice of reconstructing statues from scattered pieces.
References
Tomkins, C. 1989. Merchants and Masterpieces: The Story of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Henry Holt.
Chaco Canyon is a natural canyon with thirteen major Native American ruins, which was named a National Historical Park in 1907. The park is located in the northwest quadrant of New Mexico. Chaco Canyon’s abandonment by the Western Anasazi people remains one of the great mysteries of Southwestern prehistory. The abandoned sites contain large multistoried ruins along the Chaco River, a tributary to the San Juan River. The canyon sustained 1,500 years of prehistory and over a century of scholarly research.
Chaco Canyon was first described by Gregg in 1844. Archaeological work was begun by Adolf Bandelier, then nels nelson (1914), edgar lee hewett (1906), Judd (1922), alfred kidder (1915), and Mera (1935). Work was later continued by Hayes (1975) and Judge (1976). Over the years, the major research questions considered (1) the origins of specific culture traits in modern Eastern Pueblos, (2) cause for abandonment before European contact, and (3) the role of environment in social organization for people who depend on agriculture.
Studies of change over time in Chaco Canyon are observed through changes in ceramic styles, architectural details, settlement patterns, migration, and social interaction. The semi-arid climate with unpredictable rainfall is a major component as well, and may have contributed to the abandonment of Chaco Canyon after crop failures. Climate study has been an essential part of research on Chaco Canyon. Modern patterns have been compared to ancient patterns through tree-ring dating, or dendroclimatological reconstruction. Fossil pollen (palynological) studies and temperature studies also contributed to reconstructing dwelling and growing cycles. Tree-ring data for Chaco Canyon during a.d. 650–1150 show more-than-average rainfall and then a drier-than-average time afterward. At that time the former adaptations to drought may no longer have been effective.
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