an excellent road network and built a number of provincial towns that became important centers of the Romanizing process and the new syncretic culture, inspired by citizens of different ethnic origin.

Ulpia Oescus was an important town established in the early second century a.d., which existed until late antiquity. Archaeological excavations in progress have revealed the town’s significant architecture: a strong fortification system, the forum and some nearby temples, a civil basilica, etc. (Ivanov and Ivanov 1998). Another remarkable town that existed from the early second to the beginning of the seventh century a.d. was Nicopolis ad Istrum, now being investigated by a Bulgarian-British team, and some of its architectural complexes and buildings are being studied, like the fortifications, the forum, an odeon, the city council, a civil basilica, a bath, the palaestra, etc. (Ivanov and Ivanov 1994; Poulter 1995). A joint Bulgarian-German expedition currently excavates Iatrus, a late-Roman and early-Byzantine castle, and the fieldwork has already produced important results (Iatrus–Krivina 1995).

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Sixth–century basilica at the foot of the fortress at Spasovitsa

(Hulton Getty)

Other significant Roman and late-antiquity towns in present-day Bulgaria were Ratiaria, Novae, Abritus, Marcianopolis, Durostorum, Dionysopolis, Odessos, Anchialos, Serdica, Pautalia, Nicopolis ad Nestum, Diocletianopolis, Philippopolis, Augusta Traiana, and Deultum, all of them with monumental architecture and rich necropolises (Ivanov 1967; Velkov 1977). Some rural villas, like those at Chatalka (Nicolov 1976) and Armira (Mladenova 1991), became centers of the local Thracian aristocracy and achieved economic advances during the Roman period. At the same time, cult monuments show clearly the strong religious syncretism of the first few centuries a.d. (Kazarow 1936; Tacheva-Hitova 1983), although a Thracian hero seems to have remained a widely worshiped deity (Gočeva and Oppermann 1979– 1984; Kazarow 1938).

The great number of impressive materials from the Roman period enable scholars to work on different topics like sculpture, funerary reliefs, jewelry, and gems (Cončev 1959; Dimitrov 1937, 1942; Dimitrova-Milčeva 1980; Ruseva-Slokoska 1991). Moreover, some monuments, like the mosaic from Ulpia Oescus (Ivanov 1954) and the painted tomb in Silistra (Dimitrov 1962), are real masterpieces of Roman and late-antiquity art.

Certain topics are of great importance for medieval Bulgarian archaeology. Thus, data for an early Bulgarian and Slavic presence was especially looked for, and some settlements and necropolises were investigated (Beshevliev 1981; Stanchev 1958; Vazharova 1976, 1986). Other important studies have been devoted to the formation of the medieval Bulgarian nation and culture after the Bulgarian kingdom was established in a.d. 681 (Beshevliev 1981; Filow 1919; Grabar 1928; Mavrodinov 1959, 1966; Mijatev 1936; Vaklinov 1977). Excavations in the medieval Bulgarian capitals have also produced significant results (Mijatev 1932, 1965; Rashev and Georgiev 1996; Totev 1993; Vaklinov 1977). Problems like the chronology and character of the medieval buildings have been stated in a new