late intermediate period and Inca remains (Rydén 1952, 1957). During 1958, a German, Heinz Walter, conducted excavations in the regions of Mizque-Lakatambo (Cochabamba) and Icla-Chullpamoko (Chuquisaca) to investigate the chronology and stylistic distribution of local ceramic styles (Walter 1968).

In 1955, the American archaeologist alfred kidder from the Museum of Pennsylvania visited Bolivia and studied the ruins of Chiripa, the cultural predecessor of Tiwanaku during the formative period. He excavated the ceremonial mound of Chiripa, along with Gregorio Cordero, a Bolivian archaeologist working at the National Museum of Tiwanaku (Kidder 1956). Unfortunately, little information about these excavations was published. Between 1974 and 1975, David Browman also focused his efforts on the excavation of Chiripa, providing a new interpretation of the origins and formation of Tiwanaku as the capital of a multiethnic confederation and highlighting the role of llama caravans in the economic and political integration of the Bolivian highlands and valleys (Browman 1981).

There was almost an absence of Bolivian archaeologists excavating or generating theoretical interpretations during this period. Among the few and most important ones were Maks Portugal Zamora and Gregorio Cordero Miranda, both of whom were involved in the direction of the National Museum of Tiwanaku. Portugal Zamora (1957) excavated different archaeological sites such as Chiripa and others in the highlands while Cordero Miranda (1955, 1978) focused his research in Tiwanaku and excavating different areas, including the Pumapunku pyramid. However, most of their investigations were neither documented nor published, which is a loss for Bolivian archaeology.

Another significant feature of this period is the near absence of Bolivians participating in international archaeological projects. When Bolivians did participate, their role was secondary. There are three main reasons for this situation: first, Bolivian archaeology was not as yet institutionalized; second, Bolivian researchers did not have a clear vision about the role of archaeology as a scientific discipline; and third, the economic support of archaeology by the Bolivian state was minimal.

Institutionalization and the Rise of National Archaeology

The nationalist revolution in 1952 had a great impact on the way Bolivian archaeology was organized and structured at the government level. One of the goals of the new revolutionary government was to reinforce the image of a unified nationhood by creating a sense of national identity. In this process, the construction of a glorious past became an important element, and archaeology gained the support of the emerging elites. In 1958, the Center of Archaeological Investigations in Tiwanaku (CIAT) was created under the direction of the Ministry of Education, and its main goal was to conduct extensive research and archaeological excavations in Tiwanaku.

The creation of CIAT constituted the first systematic effort of the Bolivian state toward the institutionalization of archaeological research. Starting in 1957, under the direction of Carlos Ponce Sanginés and the sponsorship of the Bolivian government, different areas of Tiwanaku such as Kalasasaya and Akapana were extensively excavated, preserved, and restored, constituting what is today one of the most important sites of Bolivian patrimony. As a result of these excavations, Ponce formulated an evolutionary sequence for Tiwanaku, based on radiocarbon dating, as follows: (1) Hamlet Tiwanaku, b.c. 1590–a.d. 43; (2) Urban Tiwanaku, a.d. 43–667; and (3) Imperial Tiwanaku, a.d. 667–1050. It is clear that Tiwanaku was not just a ceremonial center, as previously suggested (Bennett 1934), but an extensive urban center and the capital of an expansive empire (Ponce Sanginés 1981). Ponce’s ideas and interpretation remain pivotal for the understanding of the Tiwanaku polity, and they were spread widely through a series of publications.

In 1975, the National Institute of Archaeology (INAR) was established as the main government organization in charge of executing, organizing, sponsoring, and regulating archaeological research in all of Bolivia. Ponce Sanginés, its main promoter and first director, organized a series archaeological projects in