momentous event. French research in this part of Baluchistan has continued, and this and other activities in this region may best be seen as the continuation of a long preoccupation in archaeological literature to understand Baluchistan as an intermediate zone between the Gulf, Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, and the Indus valley. In the Indus valley itself the antecedents of the Indus civilization have been highlighted by excavations at a number of sites, notably Kot Diji and Amri. The steady sequence of development toward the Indus civilization has been traced through the excavation of the dried-up drainage system of the Ghaggar-Hakra to the east of the Indus valley in Bahawalpur. R. Mughal’s work in this area has revealed not only the largest agglomeration of mature Harappan sites in a single area but also the successively earlier Kot Diji/early Harappan and Hakra Ware phases, the last one possibly going back to the fifth millennium b.c. The ramifications of different protohistoric levels all over Pakistan constitute the general theme of archaeological investigations in Pakistan, and excavations at sites such as Rehman Dheri in the Gomal valley, Jalilpur near Multan in the Indus valley, Saraikhola near Rawalpindi, Lewan, and Tarakai Qila and Sheri Khan Tarakai in Bannu, have contributed to our understanding of the protohistoric cultural picture of the subcontinent. Among the classic sites Mohenjo Daro, excavated further between 1964 and 1965 with some interesting results, formed the subject of intensive ground surveys and structural documentation in recent years. Harappa has an ongoing phase of excavations with specific targets in the eastern part of the ancient city. In the area between Swat and Chitral a sequence from the third millennium b.c. has been established and is best known for the distinctive grave assemblage known as Gandhara Grave Culture. Prehistoric studies gained some prominence in recent years with the claim of 2-million-year-old artifacts at Riwat to the south of Rawalpindi, and there are other finds in the Sukkur-Rorhi hills. Among the universities, Peshawar has a full-fledged teaching program in archaeology, with one or two other universities following suit. In addition to the central government department of archaeology, there are government archaeology departments in each province of Pakistan.

India

Continuity of the pre-1947 Archaeological Survey of India is most obvious in India, partly because of the rich diversity of archaeological remains and partly because of a much greater number of archaeology-teaching universities than in the other nation-states. Indian archaeologists began where Mortimer Wheeler left off. The building up of vertical sequences and the widening of the dimension of what was already known were pursued with great vigor, which was commensurate with other spheres of national activity, such as laying the base of industrialization. Within about twenty-five years of independence Indian archaeology had undergone a sea-change in terms of activities. Before the nature of some of these activities is outlined, it is necessary to emphasize the somewhat-changed character of the relevant institutional focus. Whereas the old survey went on opening more “branches” and “circles,” now archaeology and museum directorates came up on state or provincial levels, each entrusted with the care of monuments and other archaeological activities within their own regional jurisdiction. In addition, from 1960 onwards a number of universities (twenty to twenty-five) began to offer postgraduate courses in archaeology leading up to master’s and Ph.D. degrees in the subject. At about the same time, the Archaeological Survey of India began to run its own School of Archaeology for the training of university students and its own in-service officers. The universities that offered archaeology courses had usually their own excavation and exploration programs in the same way that the state departments ran their own field programs. A radiocarbon laboratory started functioning in the early 1960s. In the field of prehistory the initial cue was from the Terra-Paterson work mentioned earlier, and gradually the issues of prehistoric stratigraphy and geochronology came into focus. There was a great spurt in prehistoric discoveries, and in this field the survey was soon overtaken by the universities, where a new crop of Ph.D. students preferred to study regional prehistory and protohistory (see Sankalia 1974).