along with spherical corded vessels and the practice of burying their dead in “stone cists.” The Folteşti II culture developed in Moldavia, and the Coţofeni culture covered Banat, Crişana, Oltenia, and Transylvania. These communities, which were located in mountains, foothills, and on the plains, bred cattle as well as practicing agriculture. Their vessels were characterized by overturned handles and ornate incised decorations. Yamnaia shepherds from the east continued to penetrate Romania throughout this transition period from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, and all of the above-mentioned cultures continued to develop in their respective regions.

The Bronze Age, which took place from around 2000 to 1200 b.c., featured the Glina III communities in Muntenia, Oltenia, southeastern Transylvania, and southeastern Banat, identified by pottery containing “hollow-button” decoration (Morintz 1978). During the Middle Bronze Age, in western Dobroudja and southeastern Transylvania, the Tei populations (rushian zolniki) built settlements on river terraces. Their pottery vessels consisted of short pots with just one handle (later with two), with white encrusted spiral decorations. These communities were contiguous with those of the Monteoru culture from northeastern Muntenia and southern Moldavia. The latter built their fortress-like settlements on hilltops and terraces and were known for richly ornamented two-handled pots. They used polished stone implements and sometimes bronze daggers or spear points. At Sărata Monteoru four burial sites were found containing crushed skeletons. Although inhumation dominated burial rites during this period, cremation was also practiced. Burial inventories were rich, consisting of ceramic vessels, stone axes and weapons, and bronze daggers. Women’s graves contained bracelets, bronze necklaces, amber beads, and bronze and gold rings.

Also during the Bronze Age, the Verbiciora communities established lasting settlements in Oltenia, protected by ditches. This culture was known for handled ceramics and incised decoration. Burials were characterized by inhumation earlier in the period and later by cremation. The Gârla Mare populations in southern Oltenia had cremation burial sites containing richly decorated urns and female figurines. In southern Banat, the Cruceni culture also practiced cremation. Contemporaries of the Verbiciora were the Vatina in western and southwestern Banat and the Periam-Pecica on the Lower Mureş, with tell (mound) settlements. These two cultures both had ceramics with incised geometric ornaments and practiced the inhumation of crouched corpses. Meanwhile, the Wietenberg populations inhabited mostly unprotected settlements in the central Mureş area, using vessels decorated with bands and triangles, axes, and some bronze Micenian-type swords. In western Romania, the Otomani culture built fortress-like settlements and made large decorated pots. Funeral rites in both of these latter cultures evolved from inhumation to cremation. In the northwest, the Suciu de Sus culture decorated pottery with spirals and practiced cremation as well.

At a great distance from Moldavia and Transylvania lived the Noua communities. They bred cattle, used two-handled pots decorated in the hollow button style, and practiced inhumation in flat necropolises. The Noua culture was related to the Sabatinovka and the Coslogeni cultures, who lived in southeast Romania and were known for their use of two-handled vessels. These populations practiced inhumation of crouched corpses, occasionally using tumuli burials. Near the end of the Bronze Age, the Zimnicea-Plovdiv populations (who buried their dead in the fetal position with undecorated two-handled jars) penetrated southwestern Muntenia and developed bronze metallurgy, making weapons and jewelry. The influx of shepherds from the east into Dobroudja, Moldavia, and across the Romanian steppes continued throughout the Bronze Age.

The early Iron Age in Romania, called the Hallstatt period, lasted from about 1200 b.c. to 450 b.c. (Laszlo 1976, 89–98; Vasiliev 1988, 83–102; Vulpe 1974, 1–21). Bronze metallurgy was prevalent at the beginning of the period and gradually gave way to iron metallurgy. Existing populations mixed with each other, forming what became known as the Thracian communities.