archaeological artifacts, through excavation and retrieval from private collections, and the material remains of old Polish culture (including written sources) and to establish a library.

The most outstanding prehistorian of the late nineteenth century was Eustachy Tyszkiewicz (1814–1873), who conducted systematic excavations in Vilna. His papers, published after 1843, clearly indicate that he had a thorough knowledge of the three-age system, which he studied during his stay in denmark. He systematically applied a comparative-ethnological method, involving the explanation of archaeological phenomena by analogy with contemporary tribal peoples. During this time the concept of archaeology was used alternately with the study of antiquity to denote not only archaeological but also numismatic and ethnographic materials, as well as those connected with art history (painting, sculpture, tombstones, garments, and furniture).

In 1850 the Archaeological Department of the Cracow Scientific Society was opened (in 1851 it became the Section of Archaeology and Fine Arts). The society ensured that the Małopolska region played a dominant role in the development of archaeology between 1850 and 1875. Under German and Russian occupation and due to Polish patriotic insurrections and the resulting repressions, institutions conducting prehistoric studies found it difficult to survive, let alone continue their work. These years are characterized by the institutionalization of efforts focused on the study of antiquity and by large achievements in the areas of organization and methods. At the same time, an archaeological commission was set up in Vilna, and a separate Society of Friends of Sciences was established in Poznań in 1857, with the department of historical and moral studies, of which archaeology was a part. The period was also marked by the foundation of specialist museums in Cracow (1850), Vilna (1856), Poznań (1878), and Toruń (1860), evidence that archaeology had moved out of private collections and into public institutions. The foundation of museums was accompanied by the formulation of guidelines on collecting archaeological materials, which were addressed not just to archaeologists but also to the whole of society. Józef Łepkowski (1826– 1894), from Cracow, created an archaeological map for registering, making inventories of, and, as the result, interpreting the archaeological artifacts of Powiśle. Large exhibitions of antiquities were held in Warsaw (1856) and Lvov (1861), which greatly contributed to the popularization of archaeology. The greatest achievements in this area were two exhibitions of antiquities in Cracow (in 1858 and 1872) that attracted broad public interest. The main organizers were Karol Rogawski and Łepkowski. French scientist Georges Cuvier’s assertions that natural history methods were indispensable to archaeological research became widely recognized. In addition, important excavation programs were launched, such as those in Ostrów Lednicki in the Wielkopolska region and the Ojców Caves in the Małopolska region.

In the context of educating new researchers, Łepkowski’s postdoctoral thesis in the field of medieval archaeology was significant. A graduate of the Jagiellonian University in Cracow in 1863, he became the leader of his institute in 1874. His lectures initiated the study of archaeology as a university discipline. In 1866 he organized the Archaeological Room, where he collected archaeological artifacts and artworks.

Polish archaeologists maintained good relationships with foreign researchers, evidenced by their participation in congresses of prehistoric anthropology and archaeology—for example, in Copenhagen (1869), Bologna (1871), and Brussels (1872)—and at archaeological conferences in Antwerp (1867) and Bonn (1868). During the congress in Bologna, Aleksander Przeździecki described his project of archaeological mapping, which was seen as an important and innovative initiative. Przeździecki and Edward Rostawiecki become the founding members of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquity in Copenhagen and also participated in excavation studies abroad; Konstanty Tyszkiewicz took part in the excavation works under French archaeologist jacques boucher de perthes in Abbeville in france and was involved in archaeological investigations at sites beside Lake Hallstatt in Austria.